<p>The Cromarty Firth  is an arm of the Moray Firth in Scotland.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The entrance to the Cromarty Firth is guarded by two precipitous headlands; the one on the north 151 metres high and the one on the south 141 metres high &mdash; called "The Sutors" from a fancied resemblance to a couple of shoemakers (in Scots, souters) bent over their lasts. From the Sutors the Firth extends inland in a westerly and then south-westerly direction for a distance of 19 miles (30.6 kilometres). Excepting between Nigg Bay and Cromarty Bay where it is about 5 miles (8 kilometres) wide, and Alness Bay where it is 2 miles (3.2 kilometres) wide, it has an average width of 1 mile (1.6 kilometre). The southern shore of the Firth is formed by a peninsula known as the Black Isle. Good views of the Cromarty Firth are to be had from the Sutors or Cnoc Fyrish.</p><br>
<p>At its head the Firth receives its principal river, the River Conon, other rivers include the Allt Graad, Peffery, Sgitheach, Averon and Balnagown. The Dingwall Canal remains connected to the Firth, although it is now disused. The principal settlements on its shores are Dingwall near the head, Cromarty near the mouth (from which the Firth takes its name), and Invergordon on the north shore. The villages of Evanton, Alness and Culbokie are nearby. There is one bridge, the A9 road crossing between Ardullie and Findon. In the past there were several ferries across the firth (for example at Foulis) but now there is only one, a four-car ferry that runs between Cromarty and Nigg during the summer.</p><br>
<h2>Nature</h2><br>
<p>The firth is designated as a Special Protection Area for wildlife conservation purposes. Many Bottlenose dolphins, Harbor porpoises, Grey seals and Harbor seals live here, while Minke whales seasonally migrate. Larger animals such as Humpback Whales, Northern bottlenose whales, Long-finned pilot whales, Common dolphins, large fish such as the Sunfish and Basking sharks are seasonal or occasional visitors to the firth.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Firth forms one of the safest and most commodious anchorages in the north of Scotland and Invergordon was at one time a major base for the Royal Navy&#39;s Home Fleet. The Firth was the scene of the Invergordon Mutiny in 1931. Remnants of the Navy remain, such as the disused airfield near Evanton (now an industrial estate) which was built to take aircraft from the fleet carriers while they were at anchor. During World War II, there was a large training and operational base for Catalina amphibious aircraft and Sunderland seaplanes, which extended from Invergordon to Alness point - also now an industrial estate. A memorial to the men who were killed on operational missions was placed at this industrial estate in 2001. A propeller from a Catalina was found and restored by RAF apprentices and now resides in the town of Alness. The tennis courts on the industrial estate are the only remaining parts of the estate which date from World War II.</p><br>
<h2>Commerce and industry</h2><br>
<p>At Nigg there is an important North Sea oil and renewable energy centre owned by Global Energy Group since 2011. The yard with a dry dock for repairing and fabricating oil platforms, was opened in 1972 as a joint venture between Brown & Root (as it then was) and construction giant George Wimpey. Today the yard is known as Nigg Energy Park.</p><br>
<p>Elsewhere along the firth are facilities for cruise ships, oil processing, and bulk cargo handling.</p><br>
<p>Cromarty Firth Port Authority is the body responsible for regulating and managing the commercial and industrial resources of the firth.</p><br>
<p>The Blue Nile is a river originating at Lake Tana in Ethiopia. With the White Nile, the river becomes one of the two major tributaries of the Nile.</p><br>
<h2>Course</h2><br>
<p>The Blue Nile is so-called because floods during the summer monsoon erode a vast amount of fertile soil from the Ethiopian Highlands and carry it downstream as silt, turning the water dark brown or almost black.</p><br>
<p>The distance of the river from its source to its confluence has been variously reported as being between 1,460 km and 1,600 km. This uncertainty over the length might partially result from the fact that the river flows through a series of virtually impenetrable gorges cut in the Ethiopian Highlands to a depth of some 1,500 m—a depth comparable to that of the Grand Canyon of the Colorado River in the United States.</p><br>
<p>According to materials published by the Central Statistical Agency, the Blue Nile has a total length of 1,450 km, of which 800 km are inside Ethiopia. The Blue Nile flows generally south from Lake Tana and then west across Ethiopia and northwest into Sudan. Within 30 km of its source at Lake Tana, the river enters a canyon about 400 km long. This gorge is a tremendous obstacle for travel and communication from the north half of Ethiopia to the southern half. The power of the Blue Nile may best be appreciated at the Blue Nile Falls, which are 45 m high, located about 40 km downstream of Lake Tana.</p><br>
<p>Although there are several feeder streams that flow into Lake Tana, the sacred source of the river is generally considered to be a small spring at Gish Abay, situated at an altitude of approximately 2,744 m. This stream, known as the Lesser Abay River, flows north into Lake Tana. Other affluents of this lake include, in clockwise order from Gorgora, the Magech River, the Northern Gumara, the Reb River, the southern Gumara River, and the Kilte. Lake Tana&#39;s outflow then flows some 30 km before plunging over the Blue Nile Falls. The river then loops across northwest Ethiopia through a series of deep valleys and canyons into Sudan, by which point it is only known as the Blue Nile.</p><br>
<p>There are numerous tributaries of the Abay between Lake Tana and the Sudanese border. Those on its left bank, in downstream order, include the Wanqa River, the Bashilo River, the Walaqa River, the Wanchet River, the Jamma River, the Muger River, the Guder River, the Agwel River, the Nedi River, the Didessa River and the Dabus River. Those on the right side, also in downstream order, include the Handassa, Tul, Abaya, Sade, Tammi, Cha, Shita, Suha, Muga, Gulla, Temcha, Bachat, Katlan, Jiba, Chamoga, Weter and the Beles.</p><br>
<p>After flowing past Er Roseires inside Sudan, and receiving the Dinder on its right bank at Dinder, the Blue Nile joins the White Nile at Khartoum and, as the Nile, flows through Egypt to the Mediterranean Sea at Alexandria.</p><br>
<h2>Water flow</h2><br>
<p>The flow of the Blue Nile reaches maximum volume in the rainy season (from June to September), when it supplies about two thirds of the water of the Nile proper. The Blue Nile was a major source of the flooding of the Nile that contributed to the fertility of the Nile Valley and the consequent rise of Ancient Egypt and Egyptian mythology. With the completion in 1970 of the Aswan Dam in Egypt, the Nile floods ended.</p><br>
<p>The Blue Nile is vital to the livelihood of Egypt. The Blue Nile, the most significant tributary of the Nile, contributes more than half of the Niles streamflow.Mohamed Helmy Mahmoud Moustafa Elsanabary Though shorter than the White Nile, 59% of the water that reaches Egypt originates from the Blue Nile branch of the great river. The river is also an important resource for Sudan, where the Roseires Dam and Sennar Dams produce 80% of the countrys power. These dams also help irrigate the Gezira Scheme, which is most famous for its high quality cotton. The region also produces wheat and animal feed crops.</p><br>
<p>In November 2012, Ethiopia began a six-year project for the construction of the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam, a 6000-megawatt hydroelectric dam on the river. The dam is expected to be a boost for the Ethiopian economy. Sudan and Egypt, meanwhile, voiced their concern over a potential reduction in water available.</p><br>
<h2>European exploration</h2><br>
<p>The first European to have seen the Blue Nile in Ethiopia and the rivers source was Pedro Páez, a Spanish Jesuit who reached the rivers source 21 April 1613. Nevertheless, the Portuguese João Bermudes, the self-described "Patriarch of Ethiopia", provided the first description of the Blue Nile Falls in his memoirs published in 1565, and a number of Europeans who lived in Ethiopia in the late 15th century such as Pêro da Covilhã could have seen the river long before Páez, but not reached its places of source.</p><br>
<p>The source of the Blue Nile was also reached in 1629 by the Portuguese Jesuit missionary Jerónimo Lobo and in 1770 by James Bruce.</p><br>
<p>Although a number of European explorers contemplated tracing the course of the Blue Nile from its confluence with the White Nile to Lake Tana, its gorge, which begins a few kilometres inside the Ethiopian border, has discouraged all attempts since Frédéric Cailliauds attempt in 1821. The first serious attempt by a non-local to explore this reach of the river was undertaken by the American W.W. Macmillan in 1902, assisted by the Norwegian explorer B.H. Jenssen; Jenssen would proceed upriver from Khartoum while Macmillan sailed downstream from Lake Tana. However, Jenssens boats were blocked by the rapids at Famaka short of the Sudan-Ethiopian border, and Macmillan&#39;s boats were wrecked shortly after they had been launched. Macmillan encouraged Jenssen to try to sail upstream from Khartoum again in 1905, but he was forced to stop 300 mi short of Lake Tana. R.E. Cheesman, who records his surprise on arriving in Ethiopia at finding that the upper waters of "one of the most famous of the rivers of the world, and one whose name was well known to the ancients" was in his lifetime "marked on the map by dotted lines", managed to map the upper course of the Blue Nile between 1925–1933. He did this not by following the river along its banks and through its impassable canyon, but following it from the highlands above, travelling some 5,000 mi by mule in the adjacent country.</p><br>
<p>In 1968, at the request of Haile Selassie of Ethiopia, a team of 60 British and Ethiopian servicemen and scientists made the first descent of the Blue Nile from Lake Tana to a point near the Sudan border led by the explorer John Blashford-Snell. The team used specially-built Avon Inflatables and modified Royal Engineers assault boats to navigate the formidable rapids.</p><br>
<p>In 1999, writer Virginia Morell and photographer Nevada Wier made the journey by raft from Lake Tana to the Sudan, afterwards publishing a documentary about their journey. In 2000, American and National Geographic reader, Kenneth Frantz, saw a photo taken by Nevada Wier for National Geographic which would lead him to found the charity Bridges to Prosperity. This photo showed a bridge broken during World War II, with 10 men on either side of the broken span pulling each other across the dangerous gap by rope. This historic bridge was built by Emperor Fasilides in approximately 1660 with Roman bridge technology brought to Ethiopia by Portuguese soldiers during the battle with the Muslim invaders in 1507. In both 2001 and 2009, Bridges to Prosperity volunteers travelled from the United States to repair the broken bridge across the Blue Nile river and later build a new suspension bridge not susceptible to flood.</p><br>
<p>On April 28, 2004, geologist Pasquale Scaturro and his partner, kayaker and documentary filmmaker Gordon Brown, became the first known people to navigate the Blue Nile. Though their expedition included a number of others, Brown and Scaturro were the only ones to remain on the expedition for the entire journey. They chronicled their adventure with an IMAX camera and two handheld video cams, sharing their story in the IMAX film Mystery of the Nile and in a book of the same title.</p><br>
<p>The Karnak Temple Complex, commonly known as Karnak, comprises a vast mix of decayed temples, chapels, pylons, and other buildings in Egypt. Construction at the complex began during the reign of Senusret I in the Middle Kingdom and continued into the Ptolemaic period, although most of the extant buildings date from the New Kingdom. The area around Karnak was the ancient Egyptian Ipet-isut  and the main place of worship of the eighteenth dynasty Theban Triad with the god Amun as its head. It is part of the monumental city of Thebes. The Karnak complex gives its name to the nearby, and partly surrounded, modern village of El-Karnak, 2.5 km north of Luxor.</p><br>
<h2>Overview</h2><br>
<p>The complex is a vast open-air museum, and the second largest ancient religious site in the world, after the Angkor Wat Temple of Cambodia. It is believed to be the second most visited historical site in Egypt; only the Giza Pyramids near Cairo receive more visits. It consists of four main parts, of which only the largest is currently open to the general public. The term Karnak often is understood as being the Precinct of Amun-Ra only, because this is the only part most visitors see. The three other parts, the Precinct of Mut, the Precinct of Montu, and the dismantled Temple of Amenhotep IV, are closed to the public. There also are a few smaller temples and sanctuaries connecting the Precinct of Mut, the Precinct of Amun-Re, and the Luxor Temple.</p><br>
<p>The Precinct of Mut is very ancient, being dedicated to an Earth and creation deity, but not yet restored. The original temple was destroyed and partially restored by Hatshepsut, although another pharaoh built around it in order to change the focus or orientation of the sacred area. Many portions of it may have been carried away for use in other buildings.</p><br>
<p>The key difference between Karnak and most of the other temples and sites in Egypt is the length of time over which it was developed and used. Construction of temples started in the Middle Kingdom and continued through to Ptolemaic times. Approximately thirty pharaohs contributed to the buildings, enabling it to reach a size, complexity, and diversity not seen elsewhere. Few of the individual features of Karnak are unique, but the size and number of features are overwhelming. The deities represented range from some of the earliest worshiped to those worshiped much later in the history of the Ancient Egyptian culture. Although destroyed, it also contained an early temple built by Amenhotep IV (Akhenaten), the pharaoh who later would celebrate a near monotheistic religion he established that prompted him to move his court and religious center away from Thebes. It also contains evidence of adaptations, using buildings of the Ancient Egyptians by later cultures for their own religious purposes.</p><br>
<p>One famous aspect of Karnak is the Hypostyle Hall in the Precinct of Amun-Re, a hall area of 50,000 ft&sup2; with 134 massive columns arranged in 16 rows. 122 of these columns are 10 meters tall, and the other 12 are 21 meters tall with a diameter of over three meters.</p><br>
<p>The architraves on top of these columns are estimated to weigh 70 tons. These architraves may have been lifted to these heights using levers. This would be an extremely time-consuming process and also would require great balance to get to such great heights. A common alternative theory regarding how they were moved is that large ramps were constructed of sand, mud, brick or stone and that the stones were then towed up the ramps. If stone had been used for the ramps, they would have been able to use much less material. The top of the ramps presumably would have employed either wooden tracks or cobblestones for towing the megaliths.</p><br>
<p>There is an unfinished pillar in an out-of-the-way location that indicates how it would have been finished. Final carving was executed after the drums were put in place so that it was not damaged while being placed. Several experiments moving megaliths with ancient technology were made at other locations – some of them are listed here.</p><br>
<p>In 2009 UCLA launched a website dedicated to virtual reality digital reconstructions of the Karnak complex and other resources.</p><br>
<p>The sun god&#39;s shrine has light focused upon it during the winter solstice.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The history of the Karnak complex is largely the history of Thebes and its changing role in the culture. Religious centers varied by region and with the establishment of the current capital of the unified culture that changed several times. The city of Thebes does not appear to have been of great significance before the Eleventh Dynasty and previous temple building here would have been relatively small, with shrines being dedicated to the early deities of Thebes, the Earth goddess Mut and Montu. Early building was destroyed by invaders. The earliest known artifact found in the area of the temple is a small, eight-sided temple from the Eleventh Dynasty, which mentions Amun-Re. Amun (sometimes called Amen) was long the local tutelary deity of Thebes. He was identified with the Ram and the Goose. The Egyptian meaning of Amun is, "hidden" or, the "hidden god".</p><br>
<p>Major construction work in the Precinct of Amun-Re took place during the Eighteenth dynasty when Thebes became the capital of the unified Ancient Egypt.</p><br>
<p>Thutmose I erected an enclosure wall connecting the Fourth and Fifth pylons, which comprise the earliest part of the temple still standing in situ. Construction of the Hypostyle Hall also may have begun during the eighteenth dynasty, although most new building was undertaken under Seti I and Ramesses II.</p><br>
<p>Almost every pharaoh of that dynasty has added something to the temple site. Merneptah commemorated his victories over the Sea Peoples on the walls of the Cachette Court, the start of the processional route to the Luxor Temple.</p><br>
<p>Hatshepsut had monuments constructed and also restored the original Precinct of Mut, the ancient great goddess of Egypt, that had been ravaged by the foreign rulers during the Hyksos occupation. She had twin obelisks, at the time the tallest in the world, erected at the entrance to the temple. One still stands, as the tallest surviving ancient obelisk on Earth; the other has broken in two and toppled. Another of her projects at the site, Karnak&#39;s Red Chapel, or Chapelle Rouge, was intended as a barque shrine and originally, may have stood between her two obelisks. She later ordered the construction of two more obelisks to celebrate her sixteenth year as pharaoh; one of the obelisks broke during construction, and thus, a third was constructed to replace it. The broken obelisk was left at its quarrying site in Aswan, where it still remains. Known as The Unfinished Obelisk, it demonstrates how obelisks were quarried.</p><br>
<p>The last major change to Precinct of Amun-Re&#39;s layout was the addition of the first pylon and the massive enclosure walls that surround the whole Precinct, both constructed by Nectanebo I.</p><br>
<p>In 323 AD, Constantine the Great recognised the Christian religion, and in 356 Constantius II ordered the closing of pagan temples throughout the empire. Karnak was by this time mostly abandoned, and Christian churches were founded among the ruins, the most famous example of this is the reuse of the Festival Hall of Thutmose III&#39;s central hall, where painted decorations of saints and Coptic inscriptions can still be seen.</p><br>
<h3>European knowledge of Karnak</h3><br>
<p>Thebes exact placement was unknown in medieval Europe, though both Herodotus and Strabo give the exact location of Thebes and how long up the Nile one must travel to reach it. Maps of Egypt, based on the 2nd century Claudius Ptolemaeus mammoth work Geographia, had been circling in Europe since the late 14th century, all of them showing Thebes&#39; (Diospolis) location. Despite this, several European authors of the 15th and 16th century who visited only Lower Egypt and published their travel accounts, such as Joos van Ghistele or André Thévet, put Thebes in or close to Memphis.</p><br>
<p>The Karnak temple complex is first described by an unknown Venetian in 1589, although his account relates no name for the complex. This account, housed in the Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale di Firenze, is the first known European mention, since ancient Greek and Roman writers, about a whole range of monuments in Upper Egypt and Nubia, including Karnak, Luxor temple, Colossi of Memnon, Esna, Edfu, Kom Ombo, Philae, and others.</p><br>
<p>Karnak ("Carnac") as a village name, and name of the complex, is first attested in 1668, when two capuchin missionary brothers Protais and Charles François dOrléans travelled though the area. Protais writing about their travel was published by Melchisédech Thévenot (Relations de divers voyages curieux, 1670s–1696 editions) and Johann Michael Vansleb (The Present State of Egypt, 1678).</p><br>
<p>The first drawing of Karnak is found in Paul Lucas&#39; travel account of 1704, (Voyage du Sieur paul Lucas au Levant). It is rather inaccurate, and can be quite confusing to modern eyes. Lucas travelled in Egypt during 1699–1703. The drawing shows a mixture of the Precinct of Amun-Re and the Precinct of Montu, based on a complex confined by the three huge Ptolemaic gateways of Ptolemy III Euergetes / Ptolemy IV Philopator, and the massive 113 m long, 43 m high and 15 m thick, first Pylon of the Precinct of Amun-Re.</p><br>
<p>Karnak was visited and described in succession by Claude Sicard and his travel companion Pierre Laurent Pincia (1718 and 1720–21), Granger (1731), Frederick Louis Norden (1737–38), Richard Pococke (1738), James Bruce (1769), Charles-Nicolas-Sigisbert Sonnini de Manoncourt (1777), William George Browne (1792–93), and finally by a number of scientists of the Napoleon expedition, including Vivant Denon, during 1798–1799. Claude-Étienne Savary describes the complex rather detailed in his work of 1785; especially in light that it is a fictional account of a pretended journey to Upper Egypt, composed out of information from other travellers. Savary did visit Lower Egypt in 1777–78, and published a work about that too.</p><br>
<h2>Main parts</h2><br>
<h3>Precinct of Amun-Re</h3><br>
<p>This is the largest of the precincts of the temple complex, and is dedicated to Amun-Re, the chief deity of the Theban Triad. There are several colossal statues including the figure of Pinedjem I which is 10.5 meters tall. The sandstone for this temple, including all the columns, was transported from Gebel Silsila 100 mi south on the Nile river. It also has one of the largest obelisks, weighing 328 tonnes and standing 29 meters tall.</p><br>
<h3>Precinct of Mut</h3><br>
<p>Located to the south of the newer Amen-Re complex, this precinct was dedicated to the mother goddess, Mut, who became identified as the wife of Amun-Re in the eighteenth dynasty Theban Triad. It has several smaller temples associated with it and has its own sacred lake, constructed in a crescent shape. This temple has been ravaged, many portions having been used in other structures. Following excavation and restoration works by the Johns Hopkins University team, lead by Betsy Bryan (see below) the Precinct of Mut has been opened to the public. Six hundred black granite statues were found in the courtyard to her temple. It may be the oldest portion of the site.</p><br>
<p>In 2006 Betsy Bryan, an archaeologist with Johns Hopkins University, excavating at the temple of Mut, presented her findings about one festival that included apparent intentional overindulgence in alcohol. Participation in the festival was great, including the priestesses and the population. Historical records of tens of thousands attending the festival exist. These findings were made in the temple of Mut because when Thebes rose to greater prominence, Mut absorbed the warrior goddesses, Sekhmet and Bast, as some of her aspects. First, Mut became Mut-Wadjet-Bast, then Mut-Sekhmet-Bast (Wadjet having merged into Bast), then Mut also assimilated Menhit, another lioness goddess, and her adopted son&#39;s wife, becoming Mut-Sekhmet-Bast-Menhit, and finally becoming Mut-Nekhbet.</p><br>
<p>Temple excavations at Luxor discovered a "porch of drunkenness" built onto the temple by the pharaoh Hatshepsut, during the height of her twenty-year reign. In a later myth developed around the annual drunken Sekhmet festival, Ra, by then the sun god of Upper Egypt, created her from a fiery eye gained from his mother, to destroy mortals who conspired against him (Lower Egypt). In the myth, Sekhmet&#39;s blood-lust was not quelled at the end of battle and led to her destroying almost all of humanity, so Ra had tricked her by turning the Nile as red as blood (the Nile turns red every year when filled with silt during inundation) so that Sekhmet would drink it. The trick, however, was that the red liquid was not blood, but beer mixed with pomegranate juice so that it resembled blood, making her so drunk that she gave up slaughter and became an aspect of the gentle Hathor. The complex interweaving of deities occurred over the thousands of years of the culture.</p><br>
<h3>Precinct of Montu</h3><br>
<p>This portion of the site is dedicated to the son of Mut and Amun-Re, Montu, the war-god of the Theban Triad. It is located to the north of the Amun-Re complex and is much smaller in size. It is not open to the public.</p><br>
<h3>Temple of Amenhotep IV (deliberately dismantled)</h3><br>
<p>The temple that Akhenaten (Amenhotep IV) constructed on the site was located east of the main complex, outside the walls of the Amun-Re precinct. It was destroyed immediately after the death of its builder, who had attempted to overcome the powerful priesthood who had gained control over Egypt before his reign. It was so thoroughly demolished that its full extent and layout is currently unknown. The priesthood of that temple regained their powerful position as soon as Akhenaten died, and were instrumental in destroying many records of his existence.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>In Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen the final battle between Optimus Prime versus Megatron, The Fallen, and Starscream takes place in the hypostyle hall at Karnak.</p><br>
<p>Agatha Christie&#39;s Death on the Nile takes place mainly on the steamship S.S. Karnak, as well as using the temple itself in one of its scenes.</p><br>
<p>Lara Croft visited Karnak for three levels in Tomb Raider: The Last Revelation (Temple of Karnak, The Great Hypostyle Hall and Sacred Lake) and it was featured in the level editor package.</p><br>
<p>In the movie The Mummy Returns, Karnak is one of the places Rick O&#39;Connell and the others must go to, in order to ultimately reach the Scorpion King.</p><br>
<p>The British symphonic metal band Bal-Sagoth have a song called Unfettering the Hoary Sentinels of Karnak.</p><br>
<p>The first person shooter PowerSlave is set in and around Karnak.</p><br>
<p>The first part of the modernist long poem, Trilogy, by H.D. is dedicated, "For Karnak 1923".</p><br>
<p>Karnak is featured as a location for exploration in the PC game The Sims 3: World Adventures.</p><br>
<p>Karnak is featured as a location in the PC game Serious Sam.</p><br>
<p>Karnak is featured in the James Bond movie The Spy Who Loved Me.</p><br>
<p>According to the Stargate SG-1 episode Serpents Song, Apophis host was a scribe in the Temple of Amun at Karnak.</p><br>
<p>In the original Battlestar Galactica series, For Lost Planet of the Gods, Part II, some shots of the pyramids at Kobol were actually filmed at the site of the Great Temple at Karnak and the Pyramids of Giza, in Egypt.</p><br>
<p>In the Big Finish Doctor Who audio play The Church and the Crown, Erimemushinteperem introduces herself as princess Erimem of Karnak at the court of King Louis XIII of France.</p><br>
<p>Karnak is the name of the Antarctic retreat of Ozymandias, one of the main characters in the 1980s comic Watchmen by Alan Moore and Dave Gibbons.</p><br>
<p>In MARVEL Comics, Karnak is the name of an Inhuman.</p><br>
<p>Mauna Loa  is one of five volcanoes that form the Island of Hawaii in the USA state of Hawaiʻi in the Pacific Ocean. The largest subaerial volcano in both mass and volume, Mauna Loa has historically been considered the largest volcano on Earth, dwarfed only by Tamu Massif. It is an active shield volcano with relatively gentle slopes, with a volume estimated at approximately 18,000 mi3, although its peak is about 120 ft lower than that of its neighbor, Mauna Kea. Lava eruptions from Mauna Loa are silica-poor and very fluid, and they tend to be non-explosive.</p><br>
<p>Mauna Loa has probably been erupting for at least 700,000 years, and may have emerged above sea level about 400,000 years ago. The oldest-known dated rocks are not older than 200,000 years. The volcano&#39;s magma comes from the Hawaii hotspot, which has been responsible for the creation of the Hawaiian island chain over tens of millions of years. The slow drift of the Pacific Plate will eventually carry Mauna Loa away from the hotspot within 500,000 to one million years from now, at which point it will become extinct.</p><br>
<p>Mauna Loas most recent eruption occurred from March 24 to April 15, 1984. No recent eruptions of the volcano have caused fatalities, but eruptions in 1926 and 1950 destroyed villages, and the city of Hilo is partly built on lava flows from the late 19th century. Because of the potential hazards it poses to population centers, Mauna Loa is part of the Decade Volcanoes program, which encourages studies of the worlds most dangerous volcanoes. Mauna Loa has been monitored intensively by the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory since 1912. Observations of the atmosphere are undertaken at the Mauna Loa Observatory, and of the Sun at the Mauna Loa Solar Observatory, both located near the mountain&#39;s summit. Hawaii Volcanoes National Park covers the summit and the southeastern flank of the volcano, and also incorporates Kīlauea, a separate volcano.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<h3>Setting</h3><br>
<p>Like all Hawaiian volcanoes, Mauna Loa was created as the Pacific tectonic plate moved over the Hawaiian hotspot in the Earths underlying mantle. The Hawaii island volcanoes are the most recent evidence of this process that, over 70 million years, has created the 3,700 mi-long Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain. The prevailing view states that the hotspot has been largely stationary within the planets mantle for much, if not all of the Cenozoic Era. However, while the Hawaiian mantle plume is well understood and extensively studied, the nature of hotspots themselves remains fairly enigmatic.</p><br>
<p>Mauna Loa is one of five subaerial volcanoes that make up the island of Hawaiʻi, created by the Hawaii hotspot. and Kīlauea, the youngest, is believed to be between 300,000 and 600,000 years of age. Lōʻihi Seamount on the island&#39;s flank is even younger, but has yet to breach the surface. At 1 million to 700,000 years of age, Mauna Loa is the second youngest of the five volcanoes on the island, making it the third youngest volcano in the Hawaiian – Emperor seamount chain, a chain of shield volcanoes and seamounts extending from Hawaii to the Kuril–Kamchatka Trench in Russia.</p><br>
<p>Following the pattern of Hawaiian volcano formation, Mauna Loa would have started as a submarine volcano, gradually building itself up through underwater eruptions of alkali basalt before emerging from the sea through a series of surtseyan eruptions about 400,000 years ago. Since then, the volcano has remained active, with a history of effusive and explosive eruptions, including 33 eruptions since the first well-documented eruption in 1843. Although Mauna Loa&#39;s activity has been overshadowed in recent years by that of its neighbor Kīlauea, it remains active.</p><br>
<h3>Structure</h3><br>
<p>Mauna Loa is the largest subaerial and second largest overall volcano in the world (behind Tamu Massif), covering a land area of 5,271 km&sup2; and spans a maximum width of 120 km. it makes up more than half of the surface area of the island of Hawaiʻi. Combining the volcano&#39;s extensive submarine flanks (5,000 m to the sea floor) and 4,170 m subaerial height, Mauna Loa rises 9,170 m from base to summit, greater than the 8,848 m elevation of Mount Everest from sea level to its summit. In addition, much of the mountain is invisible even underwater: its mass depresses the crust beneath it by another 8 km, in the shape of an inverse mountain, meaning the total height of Mauna Loa from the start of its eruptive history is about 17,170 m.</p><br>
<p>Mauna Loa is a typical shield volcano in form, taking the shape of a long, broad dome extending down to the ocean floor whose slopes are about 12° at their steepest, a consequence of its extremely fluid lava. The shield-stage lavas that built the enormous main mass of the mountain are tholeiitic basalts, like those of Mauna Kea, created through the mixing of primary magma and subducted oceanic crust. Mauna Loas summit hosts three overlapping pit craters arranged northeast-southwest, the first and last roughly 1 km in diameter and the second an oblong 4.2 x feature; together these three craters make up the 6.2 by summit caldera Mokuʻāweoweo, so named for the Hawaiian ʻāweoweo fish (Priacanthus meeki), purportedly due to the resemblance of its eruptive fires to the coloration of the fish. Mokuʻāweoweos caldera floor lies between 170 and beneath its rim and it is only the latest of several calderas that have formed and reformed over the volcanos life. It was created between 1,000 and 1,500 years ago by a large eruption from Mauna Loas northeast rift zone, which emptied out a shallow magma chamber beneath the summit and collapsed it into its present form. Additionally, two smaller pit craters lie southwest of the caldera, named Lua Hou (New Pit) and Lua Hohonu (Deep Pit).</p><br>
<p>Mauna Loa&#39;s summit is also the focal point for its two prominent rift zones, marked on the surface by well-preserved, relatively recent lava flows (easily seen in satellite imagery) and linearly arranged fracture lines intersected by cinder and splatter cones. The northeastern rift zone takes the form of a succession of cinder cones, the most prominent of which the 60 m high Puu Ulaula, or Red Hill. There is also a less definite northward rift zone that extends towards the Humuula Saddle marking the intersection of Mauna Loa and Mauna Kea.</p><br>
<p>Simplified geophysical models of Mauna Loas magma chamber have been constructed, using interferometric synthetic aperture radar measures of ground deformation due to the slow buildup of lava under the volcanos surface. These models predict a 1.1 km wide magma chamber located at a depth of about 4.7 km, 0.5 km below sea level, near the southeastern margin of Mokuʻāweoweo. This shallow magma chamber is significantly higher-placed than Mauna Loas rift zones, suggesting magma intrusion into the deeper and occasional dike injections into the shallower parts of the rift zone drive rift activity; a similar mechanism has been proposed for neighboring Kīlauea. Earlier models based on Mauna Loas two most recent eruptions made a similar prediction, placing the chamber at 3 km deep in roughly the same geographic position.</p><br>
<p>Mauna Loa has complex interactions with its neighbors, Hualālai to the west, Mauna Kea to the north, and particularly Kīlauea to the east. Lavas from Mauna Kea intersect with Mauna Loas basal flows as a consequence of Keas older age, and Mauna Keas original rift zones were buried beneath post-shield volcanic rocks of Mauna Loa; additionally, Mauna Kea shares Mauna Loas gravity well, depressing the ocean crust beneath it by 6 km.</p><br>
<p>Because Kīlauea lacks a topographical prominence and appears as a bulge on the southeastern flank of Mauna Loa, it was historically interpreted by both native Hawaiians and early geologists to be an active satellite of Mauna Loa. However, analysis of the chemical composition of lavas from the two volcanoes show that they have separate magma chambers, and are thus distinct. Nonetheless, their proximity has led to a historical trend in which high activity at one volcano roughly coincides with low activity at the other. When Kīlauea lay dormant between 1934 and 1952, Mauna Loa became active, and when the latter remained quiet from 1952 to 1974, the reverse was true. This is not always the case; the 1984 eruption of Mauna Loa started during an eruption at Kīlauea, but had no discernible effect on the Kīlauea eruption, and the ongoing inflation of Mauna Loas summit, indicative of a future eruption, began the same day as new lava flows at Kīlaueas Puʻu Ōʻō crater. Geologists have suggested that "pulses" of magma entering Mauna Loa&#39;s deeper magma system may have increased pressure inside Kīlauea and triggered the concurrent eruptions.</p><br>
<p>Mauna Loa is slumping eastward along its southwestern rift zone, leveraging its mass into Kīlauea and driving the latter eastward at a rate of about 10 cm per year; the interaction between the two volcanoes in this manner has generated a number of large earthquakes in the past, and has resulted in a significant area of debris off of Kīlaueas seaward flank known as the Hilina Slump. A system of older faults exists on the southeastern side of Mauna Loa that likely formed before Kilauea became large enough to impede Mauna Loas slump, the lowest and northernmost of which, the Kaoiki fault, remains an active earthquake center today. The west side of Mauna Loa, meanwhile, is unimpeded in movement, and indeed is believed to have undergone a massive slump collapse between 100,000 and 200,000 years ago, the residue from which, consisting of a scattering of debris up to several kilometers wide and up to 50 km distant, is still visible today. The damage was so extensive that the headwall of the damage likely intersected its southwestern rift zone. There is very little movement there today, a consequence of the volcano&#39;s geometry.</p><br>
<p>Mauna Loa is tall enough to have experienced glaciation during the last ice age, 25,000 to 15,000 years ago. Unlike Mauna Kea, on which extensive evidence of glaciation remains even today, Mauna Loa was at the time and has remained active, having grown an additional 150 to 300 m in height since then and covering any glacial deposits beneath new flows; strata of that age doesnt occur until at least 2,000 m down from the volcanos summit, too low for glacial growth. Mauna Loa also lacks its neighbor&#39;s summit permafrost region, although sporadic ice persists in places. It is speculated that extensive phreatomagmatic activity occurred during this time, contributing extensively to ash deposits on the summit.</p><br>
<h2>Eruptive history</h2><br>
<h3>Prehistoric eruptions</h3><br>
<p>To have reached its enormous size within its relatively short (geologically speaking) 600,000 to 1,000,000 years of life, Mauna Loa would logically have had to have grown extremely rapidly through its developmental history,) has amassed a record of almost two hundred reliably dated extant flows confirming this hypothesis.</p><br>
<p>The oldest exposed flows on Mauna Loa are thought to be the Ninole Hills on its southern flank, subaerial basalt rock dating back approximately 100 to 200 thousand years. They form a terrace against which younger flows have since banked, heavily eroded and incised against its slope in terms of direction; this is believed to be the result of a period of erosion because of a change in the direction of lava flow caused by the volcanos prehistoric slump. These are followed by two units of lava flows separated by an intervening ash layer known as the Pāhala ash layer: the older Kahuka basalt, sparsely exposed on the lower southwest rift, and the younger and far more widespread Kaʻu basalt, which appear more widely on the volcano. The Pāhala ashes themselves were produced over a long period of time circa 13 to 30 thousand years ago, although heavy vitrification and interactions with post and pre- creation flows has hindered exact dating. Their age roughly corresponding with the glaciation of Mauna Loa during the last ice age, raising the distinct possibility that it is the product of phreatomagmatic interaction between the long-gone glaciers and Mauna Loas eruptive activities.</p><br>
<p>Studies have shown that a cycle occurs in which volcanic activity at the summit is dominant for several hundred years, after which activity shifts to the rift zones for several more centuries, and then back to the summit again. Two cycles have been clearly identified, each lasting 1,500–2,000 years. This cyclical behavior is unique to Mauna Loa among the Hawaiian volcanoes. Between about 7,000 and 6,000 years ago Mauna Loa was largely inactive. The cause of this cessation in activity is not known, and no known similar hiatus has been found at other Hawaiian volcanoes except for those currently in the post-shield stage. Between 11,000 and 8,000 years ago, activity was more intense than it is today. However, Mauna Loa&#39;s overall rate of growth has probably begun to slow over the last 100,000 years, and the volcano may in fact be nearing the end of its tholeiitic basalt shield-building phase.</p><br>
<h3>Recent history</h3><br>
<p>Ancient Hawaiians have been present on Hawaiʻi island for about 1,500 years, but they preserved almost no records on volcanic activity on the island, beyond a few fragmentary accounts dating to the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Possible eruptions occurred around 1730 and 1750 and sometime during 1780 and 1803. A June 1832 eruption was witnessed by a missionary on Maui, but the 190 km between the two islands and lack of apparent geological evidence have cast this testimony in doubt. Thus the first entirely confirmed historically witnessed eruption was a January 1843 event; since that time Mauna Loa has erupted 32 times.</p><br>
<p>Historical eruptions at Mauna Loa are typically Hawaiian in character and rarely violent, starting with the emergence of lava fountains over a several kilometer long rift colloquially known as the "curtain of fire" (often, but not always, propagating from Mauna Loas summit) and eventually concentrating at a single vent, its long-term eruptive center. 40 percent of the volcanos surface consists of lavas less than a thousand years old, and 98 percent of lavas less than 10,000 years old. In addition to the summit and rift zones, Mauna Loa&#39;s northwestern flank has also been the source of three historical eruptions.</p><br>
<p>The 1843 event was followed by eruptions in 1849, 1851, 1852, and 1855, A short single-day eruption in 1877 was unusual in that it took place underwater, in Kealakekua Bay, and within a mile of the shoreline; curious onlookers approaching the area in boats reported unusually turbulent water and occasional floating blocks of hardened lava. Further eruptions occurred in 1879 and then twice in 1880, the latter of which extended into 1881 and came within the present boundaries of the islands largest city, Hilo; however, at the time, the settlement was a shore-side village located further down the volcanos slope, and so was unaffected.</p><br>
<p>desc bottom-left</p><br>
<p>Mauna Loa continued its activity, and of the eruptions that occurred in 1887, 1892, 1896, 1899, 1903 (twice), 1907, 1914, 1916, 1919, and 1926, After an event in 1933, Mauna Loa&#39;s 1935 eruption caused a public crisis when its flows started to head towards Hilo. A bombing operation was decided upon to try and divert the flows, planned out by then-lieutenant colonel George S. Patton. The bombing, conducted on December 27, was declared a success by Thomas A. Jaggar, director of the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory, and lava stopped flowing by January 2, 1936. However, the role the bombing played in ending the eruption has since been heavily disputed by volcanologists. A longer but summit-bound event in 1940 was comparatively less interesting.</p><br>
<p>Mauna Loas 1942 eruption occurred only four months after the attack on Pearl Harbor and the United States entry into World War II, and created a unique problem for the wartime United States. Occurring during an enforced nighttime blackout on the island, the eruptions luminosity forced the government to issue a gag order on the local press, hoping to prevent news of its occurrence spreading, for fear that the Japanese would use it to launch a bombing run on the island. However, as flows from the eruption rapidly spread down the volcanos flank and threatened the ʻOlaʻa flume, Mountain View&#39;s primary water source, the United States Air Force decided to drop its own bombs on the island in the hopes of redirecting the flows away from the flume; sixteen bombs weighing between 300 and each were dropped on the island, but produced little effect. Eventually, the eruption ceased on its own.</p><br>
<p>Following a 1949 event, the next major eruption at Mauna Loa occurred in 1950. Originating from the volcanos southwestern rift zone, the eruption remains the largest rift event in the volcanos modern history, lasting 23 days, emitting 376 million cubic meters of lava, and reaching 24 km the ocean within 3 hours. The 1950 eruption was not the most voluminous eruption on the volcano (the long-lived 1872–1877 event produced more than twice as much material), but it was easily one of the fastest-acting, producing the same amount of lava as the 1859 eruption in a tenth of the time. Flows overtook the village of Hoʻokena-mauka in South Kona, crossed Hawaii Route 11, and reached the sea within four hours of eruption. Although there was no loss of life, the village was permanently destroyed. After the 1950 event Mauna Loa, entered an extended period of dormancy, interrupted only by a small single-day summit event in 1975. However it rumbled to life again in 1984, manifesting first at Mauna Loas summit, and then producing a narrow, channelized a&#39;a flow that advanced downslope within 6 km of Hilo, close enough to illuminate the city at nighttime. However, the flow got no closer, as two natural levees further up its pathway consequently broke and diverted active flows.</p><br>
<p>Mauna Loa has not erupted since, and as of January 2013, the volcano has remained quiet for nearly 29 years, its longest period of quiet in recorded history.</p><br>
<h3>Hazards</h3><br>
<p>Mauna Loa has been designated a Decade Volcano, one of the sixteen volcanoes identified by the International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earths Interior (IAVCEI) as being worthy of particular study in light of their history of large, destructive eruptions and proximity to populated areas. The United States Geological Survey maintains a hazard zone mapping of the island done on a one to nine scale, with the most dangerous areas corresponding the smallest numbers. Based on this classification Mauna Loas continuously active summit caldera and rift zones have been given a level one designation. Much of the area immediately surrounding the rift zones is considered level two, and about 20 percent of the area has been covered in lava in historical times. Much of the remainder of the volcano is hazard level three, about 15 to 20 percent of which has been covered by flows within the last 750 years. However, two sections of the volcano, the first in the Naalehu area and the second on the southeastern flank of Mauna Loa&#39;s rift zone, are protected from eruptive activity by local topography, and have thus been designated hazard level 6, comparable with a similarly isolated segment on Kīlauea.</p><br>
<p>Although volcanic eruptions in Hawaiʻi rarely produce casualties (the only direct historical fatality due to volcanic activity on the island occurred at Kīlauea in 1924, when an unusually explosive eruption hurled rocks at an onlooker), property damage due to inundation by lava is a common and costly hazard. Hawaiian-type eruptions usually produce extremely slow-moving flows that advance at walking pace, presenting little danger to human life, but this is not strictly the case; Mauna Loas 1950 eruption emitted as much lava in three weeks as Kīlaueas current eruption produces in three years and reached sea level within four hours of its start, overrunning the village of Hoʻokena Mauka and a major highway on the way there.</p><br>
<p>A potentially greater hazard at Mauna Loa is a sudden, massive collapse of the volcanos flanks, like the one that struck the volcanos west flank between 100,000 and 200,000 years ago and formed the present-day Kealakekua Bay. A more recent example of the risks associated with slumps occurred in 1975, when the Hilina Slump suddenly lurched forward several meters, triggering a 7.2 earthquake and a 14 m tsunami that killed two campers at Halape.</p><br>
<h3>Monitoring</h3><br>
<p>Established on Kīlauea in 1912, the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory (HVO), presently a branch of the United States Geological Survey, is the primary organization associated with the monitoring, observance, and study of Hawaiian volcanoes. Thomas A. Jaggar, the observatory&#39;s founder, attempted a summit expedition to the volcano to observe its 1914 eruption, but was rebuffed by the arduous trek required (see Ascents). After soliciting help from Lorrin A. Thurston, in 1915 he was able to persuade the US Army to construct a "simple route to the summit" for public and scientific use, a project completed in December of that year; the Observatory has maintained a presence on the volcano ever since.</p><br>
<p>Eruptions on Mauna Loa are almost always preceded and accompanied by prolonged episodes of seismic activity, the monitoring of which was the primary and often only warning mechanism in the past and which remains viable today. Seismic stations have been maintained on Hawaiʻi since the Observatorys inception, but these were concentrated primarily on Kīlauea, with coverage on Mauna Loa improving only slowly through the 20th century. Following the invention of modern monitoring equipment, the backbone of the present-day monitoring system was installed on the volcano in the 1970s. Mauna Loas July 1975 eruption was forewarned by more than a year of seismic unrest, with the HVO issuing warnings to the general public from late 1974; the 1984 eruption was similarly preceded by as much as three years of unusually high seismic activity, with volcanologists predicting an eruption within two years in 1983.</p><br>
<p>The modern monitoring system on Mauna Loa is constituted not only by its locally seismic network but also of a large number of GPS stations, tiltmeters, and strainmeters that have been anchored on the volcano to monitor ground deformation due to swelling in Mauna Loas subterranean magma chamber, which presents a more complete picture of the events proceeding eruptive activity. The GPS network is the most durable and wide-ranging of the three systems, while the tiltmeters provide the most sensitive predictive data, but are prone to erroneous results unrelated to actual ground deformation; nonetheless a survey line across the caldera measured a 76 mm increase in its width over the year preceding the 1975 eruption, and a similar increase in 1984 eruption. Strainmeters, by contrast, are relatively rare. The Observatory also maintains two gas detectors at Mokuʻāweoweo, Mauna Loas summit caldera, as well as a publicly accessible and occasional screenings by interferometric synthetic aperture radar imaging.</p><br>
<h2>Human history</h2><br>
<h3>Pre-contact</h3><br>
<p>The first Ancient Hawaiians to arrive on Hawaii island lived along the shores where food and water were plentiful. Flightless birds that had previously known no predators became a staple food source. Early settlements had a major impact on the local ecosystem, and caused many extinctions, particularly amongst bird species, as well as introducing foreign plants and animals and increasing erosion rates. The prevailing lowland forest ecosystem was transformed from forest to grassland; some of this change was caused by the use of fire, but the main reason appears to have been the introduction of the Polynesian Rat (Rattus exulans).</p><br>
<p>Ancient Hawaiian religious practice holds that the five volcanic peaks of the island are sacred, and regards Mauna Loa, the largest of them all, with great admiration; but what mythology survives today consists mainly of oral accounts from the 18th century first compiled in the 19th. Most of these stories agree that the Hawaiian volcano deity, Pele, resides in Halemaʻumaʻu Crater on Kilauea; however a few place her home at Mauna Loas summit caldera Mokuʻāweoweo, and the mythos in general associates her with all volcanic activity on the island. Regardless, Kīlaueas lack of a geographic outline and strong volcanic link to Mauna Loa led to it being considered an offshoot of Mauna Loa by the Ancient Hawaiians, meaning much of the mythos now associated with Kīlauea was originally directed at Mauna Loa proper as well.</p><br>
<p>Ancient Hawaiians constructed an extensive trail system on Hawaiʻi island, today known as the Ala Kahakai National Historic Trail. The network consisted of short trailheads servicing local areas along the main roads and more extensive networks within and around agricultural centers. The positioning of the trails were practical, connecting living areas to farms and ports and regions to resources, with a few upland sections reserved for gathering and most lines marked well enough to remain identifiable long after regular use has ended. One of these trails, the Ainapo Trail, ascended from the village of Kapāpala over 3,400 m in about 56 km and ended at Mokuʻāweoweo at Mauna Loas summit. Although the journey was arduous and required several days and many porters, ancient Hawaiians likely made the journey during eruptions to leave offerings and prayers to honor Pele, much as they did at Halemaʻumaʻu, neighboring Kilaueas more active and more easily accessible caldera. Several camps established along the way supplied water and food for travelers.</p><br>
<h3>European summiting attempts</h3><br>
<p>James Cooks third voyage was the first to make landfall on Hawaiʻi island, in 1778, and following adventures along the North American west coast Cook returned to the island in 1779. On his second visit John Ledyard, a corporal of the Royal Marines aboard the HMS Resolution, proposed and receiving approval for an expedition to summit Mauna Loa to learn "about that part of the island, particularly the peak, the tip of which is generally covered with snow, and had excited great curiosity." Using a compass, Ledyard and small group of ships mates and native attendants attempted to make a direct course for the summit. However, on the second day of traveling the route became steeper, rougher, and blocked by "impenetrable thickets," and the group was forced to abandon their attempt and return to Kealakekua Bay, reckoning they had "penetrated 24 miles and we suppose within 11 miles of the peak&quot in reality, Mokuʻāweoweo lies only 32 km east of the bay, a severe overestimation on Ledyards part. Another of Cooks men, Lieutenant James King, estimated the peak to be at least 5,600 m high based on its snow line.</p><br>
<p>The next attempt to summit Mauna Loa was an expedition led by Archibald Menzies, a botanist and naturalist on the 1793 Vancouver Expedition. In February of that year Menzies, two ships&#39; mates, and a small group of native Hawaiian attendants attempted a direct course for the summit from Kealakekua Bay, making it 26 km inland by their reckoning (an overestimation) before they were turned away by the thickness of the forest. On a second visit by the expedition to the island in January of the next year Menzies was placed in charge of exploring the island interior, and after traversing the flanks of Hualālai he and his party arrived at the high plateau separating the two volcanoes. Menzies decided to make a second attempt (above the objections of the accompanying island chief), but again his progress was arrested by unassailable thickets.</p><br>
<p>Menzies made a third attempt to summit Mauna Loa in February 1794. This time the botanist consulted King Kamehameha I for advice and learned that he could take canoes to the south and follow the ʻAinapō Trail, not knowing of its existence beforehand. Significantly better prepared, Menzies, Lieutenant Joseph Baker and Midshipman George McKenzie of the Discovery, and a servant (most likely Jonathan Ewins, listed on the ships muster as "Botanists L&#39;t") reached the summit, which Menzies estimated to be 4,156 m high with the aid of a barometer (consistent with a modern value of 4,169 m). He was surprised to find heavy snow and morning temperatures of -3 &deg;C, and was unable to compare the heights of Mauna Loa and Kea but correctly supposed the latter to be taller based on its larger snow cap. The feat of summitting Mauna Loa was not to be repeated for forty years.</p><br>
<p>The Hawaiian Islands were the site of fervent missionary work, with the first group of missionaries arrived at Honolulu in 1820 and the second in 1823. Some of these missionaries left for Hawaiʻi island, and spent ten weeks traveling around it, preaching at local villages and climbing Kilauea, from which one of its members, William Ellis, observed Mauna Loa with the aid of a telescope and ascertained it and Kea to be "perhaps 15,000 to 16,000 feet above the level of the sea&quot they did not, however, attempt to climb the volcano itself. It is sometimes reported that the missionary Joseph Goodrich reached the summit around this time, but he never claimed this himself, though he did summit Mauna Kea and describe Mokuʻāweoweo with the aid of another telescope.</p><br>
<p>The next successful ascent was made on January 29, 1834, 40 years later, by the Scottish botanist David Douglas, who also reached the summit caldera using the ʻAinapō Trail. By the time Douglas reached the summit the environment had put him under extreme duress, but he nonetheless stayed overnight to make measurements of the summit caldera&#39;s proportions and record barometric data on its height, both now known to be widely inaccurate. Douglas collected biological samples on the way both up and down, and after a difficult and distressing descent began collating his samples; he planned to return to England, but instead several months later his body was mysteriously discovered crushed in a pit besides a dead wild boar.</p><br>
<p>Isidor Löwenstern successfully climbed Mauna Loa in February 1839, only the third successful climb in 60 years.</p><br>
<h3>Wilkes expedition</h3><br>
<p>The United States Exploring Expedition led by Lieutenant Charles Wilkes was tasked with a vast survey of the Pacific Ocean starting in 1838. In September 1840 they arrived in Honolulu, where repairs to the ships took longer than expected. Wilkes decided to spend the winter in Hawaii and take the opportunity to explore its volcanoes while waiting for better weather to continue the expedition. King Kamehameha III assigned American medical missionary Dr. Gerrit P. Judd to the expedition as a translator.</p><br>
<p>Wilkes sailed to Hilo on the island of Hawaiʻi and decided to climb Mauna Loa first, since it looked easier than Mauna Kea. On December 14 he hired about 200 porters, but after he left he realized only about half the equipment had been taken, so he had to hire more Hawaiians at higher pay. When they reached Kīlauea after two days, their guide Puhano headed off to the established ʻAinapō Trail. Wilkes did not want to head back downhill so he blazed his own way through dense forest directed by a compass. The Hawaiians were offended by the waste of sacred trees which did not help morale. At about 6,000 ft elevation they established a camp called "Sunday Station" at the edge of the forest.</p><br>
<p>Two guides joined them at Sunday Station: Keaweehu, "the bird-catcher" and another whose Hawaiian name is not recorded, called "ragsdale". Although Wilkes thought he was almost to the summit, the guides knew they were less than halfway up. Since there was no water at Sunday Station, porters had to be sent back ten miles (16 km) to a lava tube on ʻAinapō Trail which had a known supply. After an entire day replenishing stocks, they continued up to a second camp they called "Recruiting Station" at about 9,000 ft elevation. After another full day&#39;s hike they established "Flag Station" on December 22, and by this time were on the ʻAinapō Trail. Most of the porters were sent back down to get another load.</p><br>
<p>At the Flag Station Wilkes and his eight remaining men built a circular wall of lava rocks and covered the shelter with a canvas tent. A snowstorm was in progress and several suffered from altitude sickness. That night (December 23), the snow on the canvas roof caused it to collapse. At daylight some of the group went down the trail to retrieve firewood and the gear abandoned on the trail the day before. After another days climb, nine men reached the rim of Mokuʻāweoweo. They could not find a way down its steep sides so chose a smooth place on the rim for the camp site, at coordinates 19&deg;27&prime;59&Prime;N latitude, 155&deg;34&prime;54&Prime;W longitude. Their tent was pitched within 60 ft of the craters edge, secured by lava blocks.</p><br>
<p>The next morning they were unable to start a fire using friction due to the thin air at that altitude, and sent for matches. By this time, the naval officers and Hawaiians could not agree on terms to continue hiring porters, so sailors and marines were ordered from the ships. Dr. Judd traveled between the summit and the Recruiting Station to tend the many who suffered from altitude sickness or had worn out their shoes on the rough rock. Christmas Day was spent building rock walls around the camp to give some protection from the high winds and blowing snow. It took another week to bring all the equipment to the summit, including a pendulum designed for measuring slight variations in gravity.</p><br>
<p>On December 31, 1840 the pre-fabricated pendulum house was assembled. Axes and chisels cut away the rock surface for the pendulum&#39;s base. It took another three days to adjust the clock to the point where the experiments could begin. However, the high winds made so much noise that the ticks could often not be heard, and varied the temperature to make measurements inaccurate. Grass had to be painstakingly brought from the lowest elevations for insulation to get accurate measurements.</p><br>
<p>On Monday, January 11, Wilkes hiked around the summit crater. Using an optical method, he estimated Mauna Kea was only 193 ft higher (modern measurements are 104 ft).</p><br>
<p>On January 13, 1841, he had "Pendulum Peak, January 1841 USA Ex, Ex." cut into a rock at the site.</p><br>
<p>The tents were dismantled and Hawaiians carried the gear down over the next three days, while Wilkes enjoyed a lomilomi Hawaiian massage. He continued his measurements at lower elevations and left the island on March 5. For all the effort he did not obtain any significant results, attributing gravity discrepancies to "the tides".</p><br>
<p>The Wilkes expeditions camp sites ruins are the only known physical evidence in the Pacific of the USA Exploring Expedition. The camp site was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on July 24, 1974 as site 74000295, and is state historic site 10-52-5507.</p><br>
<h3>Today</h3><br>
<p>A summit shelter was built with some of the stones from Wilkes&#39; camp site and mortar in 1934. In 1916 Mokuʻāweoweo was included in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park, and a new trail was built directly from park headquarters at Kīlauea, an even more direct route than the one taken by Wilkes. This trail, arriving at the summit from the east via Red Hill, became the preferred route due to its easier access and gentler slope. The historic ʻAinapō Trail fell into disuse, and was reopened in the 1990s. A third modern route to the summit is from the Saddle Road up to the Mauna Loa Observatory which is at 11,135 ft elevation a few miles north of Mokuʻāweoweo and the North Pit trail.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>Trade winds blow from east to west across the Hawaiian islands, and the presence of Mauna Loa strongly affects the local climate. At low elevations, the eastern (windward) side of the volcano receives heavy rain; the city of Hilo is the wettest in the United States. The rainfall supports extensive forestation. The western (leeward) side has a much drier climate. At higher elevations, the amount of precipitation decreases, and skies are very often clear. Very low temperatures mean that precipitation often occurs in the form of snow, and the summit of Mauna Loa is described as a periglacial region, where freezing and thawing play a significant role in shaping the landscape.</p><br>
<p>Mauna Loa has a tropical climate with warm temperatures at lower elevations and cool to cold temperatures higher up year-round. Below is the table for the slope observatory, which is at 10,000 ft in the alpine zone. The highest recorded temperature was 85 &deg;F and the lowest was 18 &deg;F on February 18, 2003 and February 20, 1962, respectively.</p><br>
<h2>Observatories</h2><br>
<p>The location of Mauna Loa has made it an important location for atmospheric monitoring by the Global Atmosphere Watch and other scientific observations. The Mauna Loa Solar Observatory (MLSO), located at 11,155 ft on the northern slope of the mountain, has long been prominent in observations of the Sun. The NOAA Mauna Loa Observatory (MLO) is located close by. From its location well above local human-generated influences, the MLO monitors the global atmosphere, including the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide. Measurements are adjusted to account for local outgassing of CO2 from the volcano.</p><br>
<p>The Yuan-Tseh Lee Array for Microwave Background Anisotropy (AMiBA) sits at an elevation of 11,155 ft. It was established in October 2006 by the Academia Sinica Institute of Astronomy and Astrophysics (ASIAA) to examine cosmic microwave background radiation.</p><br>
<p>Aphrodisias  was a small ancient Greek Helenistic city in the historic Caria cultural region of western Anatolia, Turkey. It is located near the modern village of Geyre, about 100 km east/inland from the coast of the Aegean Sea, and 230 km southeast of İzmir.</p><br>
<p>Aphrodisias was named after Aphrodite, the Greek goddess of love, who had here her unique cult image, the Aphrodite of Aphrodisias. According to the Suda, a Byzantine encyclopedic compilation, before the city became known as Aphrodisias (c.3rd century BCE) it had three previous names: Lelégōn Pólis (Λελέγων πόλις, "City of the Leleges"), Megálē Pólis (Μεγάλη Πόλις, "Great City"), and Ninóē (Νινόη).</p><br>
<p>Sometime before 640, in the Late Antiquity period when it was within the Byzantine Empire, the city was renamed Stauroúpolis (Σταυρούπολις, "City of the Cross").</p><br>
<p>In 2017 it was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage Site list.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Aphrodisias was the metropolis (provincial capital) of the region and Roman province of Caria.</p><br>
<p>White and blue grey Carian marble was extensively quarried from adjacent slopes in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, for building facades and sculptures. Marble sculptures and sculptors from Aphrodisias became famous in the Roman world. Many examples of statuary have been unearthed in Aphrodisias, and some representations of the Aphrodite of Aphrodisias also survive from other parts of the Roman world, as far afield as Pax Julia in Lusitania.</p><br>
<p>The city had notable schools for sculpture, as well as philosophy, remaining a centre of paganism until the end of the 5th century. In Byzantine times, the city was the seat of a fiscal administrative unit (dioikesis).</p><br>
<p>The city was sacked again by the rebel Theodore Mankaphas in 1188, and then by the Seljuk Turks in 1197. It finally fell under Turkish control towards the end of the 13th century.</p><br>
<h3>Geological history</h3><br>
<p>The site is in an earthquake zone and has suffered a great deal of damage at various times, especially in severe tremors of the 4th and 7th centuries. An added complication was that one of the 4th century earthquakes altered the water table, making parts of the town prone to flooding. Evidence can be seen of emergency plumbing installed to combat this problem.</p><br>
<p>Aphrodisias never fully recovered from the 7th century earthquake, and fell into disrepair. Part of the town was covered by the modern village of Geyre; some of the cottages were removed in the 20th century to reveal the older city. A new Geyre has been built a short distance away.</p><br>
<h3>Ecclesiastical history</h3><br>
<p>Le Quien (Oriens christianus, I, 899–904) mentions twenty bishops of this see, among whom were:</p><br>
<p>Ammonius at the First Council of Nicæa in 325</p><br>
<p>Eumenius at the First Council of Constantinople in 381</p><br>
<p>Cyrus at the First Council of Ephesus in 431</p><br>
<p>Critonianus at the Council of Chalcedon in 451</p><br>
<p>Severianus at the Second Council of Constantinople in 553</p><br>
<p>Ephraem of Caria, a liturgical poet, etc.</p><br>
<p>Another bishop, Theopropios, is mentioned by an inscription (Revue des études grecques, XIX, 298). Bishops are known from the Notitia Episcopatuum of pseudo-Epiphanius (about 640AD).</p><br>
<p>The town was also home to the martyrs Diodorus and Rodopiano during the persecution of Diocletian.</p><br>
<p>In the 7th century Stauropolis had twenty-eight suffragan bishops and twenty-six at the beginning of the 10th century. Surviving acta record that between 1356 and 1368 it was without a metropolitan, but was under the administration of the metropolitan of Bizye. In 1369 metropolitan reappears as the recipient of the churches of Miletus and Antioch on the Maeander, and another is mentioned in 1399. Isaias of Stauropolis attended the Council of Florence (1439) and fled to avoid signing the decree of union.</p><br>
<p>Stauropolis remains a Roman Catholic titular metropolitan see of the former Roman province of Caria, under the name Stauropoli (Latin: Archidioecesis Stauropolitana).</p><br>
<h2>Buildings and other structures</h2><br>
<h3>Temple of Aphrodite</h3><br>
<p>The Temple of Aphrodite was a focal point of the town, but the character of the building was altered when it became a Christian basilica. The Aphrodisian sculptors became renowned and benefited from a plentiful supply of marble close at hand. The school of sculpture was very productive; much of their work can be seen around the site and in the museum. Many full-length statues were discovered in the region of the agora, and trial and unfinished pieces pointing to a true school are in evidence. Sarcophagi were recovered in various locations, most frequently decorated with designs consisting of garland and columns. Pilasters have been found showing what are described as "peopled scrolls" with figures of people, birds and animals entwined in acanthus leaves.</p><br>
<h3>Monumental gateway</h3><br>
<p>A monumental gateway, or tetrapylon, leads from the main north-south street of the town into a large forecourt in front of the Temple or Sanctuary of Aphrodite. The gateway was built ca. A.D. 200.</p><br>
<h3>Bouleuterion</h3><br>
<p>The bouleuterion (council house), or odeon, is centered on the north side of the North Agora. As it stands today, it consists of a semicircular auditorium fronted by a shallow stage structure about 46 m wide. The lower part of the auditorium survives intact, with nine rows of marble seats divided into five wedges by radial stairways. The seating of the upper part, amounting to an additional twelve rows, has collapsed together with its supporting vaults. The plan is an extremely open one, with numerous entrances at ground level and several stairways giving access to the upper rows of seats. A system of massive parallel buttresses shows that the building was originally vaulted. The auditorium would have been lighted by a series of tall, arched windows in the curved outer wall. Seating capacity can be estimated at about 1750.</p><br>
<p>The available evidence indicates a construction date in the Antonine or early Severan period (late 2nd or early 3rd century AD). The scaenae frons (stage front) was certainly put up at this time, as the style of both sculpture and architectural ornament suggest. Statue bases terminating the retaining walls of the auditorium bore the names of two brothers, senators in the early Severan period, and two inscribed bases placed symmetrically against the exterior facade held statues of Aphrodisian benefactors, Claudia Antonia Tatiana and her uncle Lucius Antonius Dometinus, who were active at the end of the 2nd century. Tatiana is known to have had close ties with Ephesus, and it is possible that the striking similarities between this building and the bouleuterion on the civic agora there, dated by inscription to the mid-2nd century, are due to some initiative on her part. We do not know what stood here before the 2nd century AD, but it is likely that the present building replaced a smaller one contemporary with the laying out of the agora in the late 1st century BC.</p><br>
<p>The bouleuterion at Aphrodisias remained in this form until the early 5th century, when a municipal official had it adapted as a palaestra, recording his achievement in an inscription on the upper molding of the pulpitum (stage). Palaestra usually refers to a wrestling ground, but in the 5th century it could be used to describe a hall for lectures, performances, and various kinds of competitive displays, as suggested by a number of factional inscriptions carved on the seats. Numerous additional cuttings in the surviving seats, probably for poles supporting awnings, suggest that by this time the building had lost its roof. The orchestra was lowered and provided with a marble pavement, reused, perhaps, from the earlier phase.</p><br>
<h3>Sebasteion</h3><br>
<p>The Sebasteion, or Augusteum, was jointly dedicated, according to a 1st-century inscription on its propylon, "To Aphrodite, the Divine Augusti and the People". A relief found in the ruins of the south portico represented a personification of the polis making sacrifice to the cult image of Aphrodite of Aphrodisias, venerated as promētōr, "foremother" or "ancestral mother". "Aphrodite represents the cosmic force that integrates imperial power with the power of local elites," a reader of Chariton romance has noted. This connection between the goddess and the imperial house was also a particularly politic one at the time, as the Gens Julia - the family of Julius Caesar, Octavian Augustus, and their immediate successors - claimed divine descent from Venus/Aphrodite.</p><br>
<h3>Stadium</h3><br>
<p>The stadium was used for athletic events until the theatre was badly damaged by a 7th-century earthquake, requiring part of the stadium to be converted for events previously staged in the theatre.</p><br>
<p>The stadium measures approximately 270 m by 60 m. With 30 rows of seats on each side, and around each end, it would have had a maximum capacity for around 30,000 spectators. The track measures approximately 225 m by 30 m.</p><br>
<p>As the stadium is considerably larger and structurally more extensive than even the stadium at the Sanctuary of Apollo at Delphi, it is probably one of the best preserved structures of its kind in the Mediterranean.</p><br>
<h2>Other finds</h2><br>
<h3>Inscriptions</h3><br>
<p>The quality of the marble in Aphrodisias has resulted in an unusually large number of inscribed items surviving in the city.</p><br>
<p>As many pieces of monumental quarried stone were reused in the Late Antique city walls, many inscriptions could and can be easily read without any excavation; the city has therefore been visited and its inscriptions recorded repeatedly in modern times, starting from the early 18th century.</p><br>
<p>Upwards of 2000 inscriptions have been recorded by excavators under the aegis of New York University. Many of these inscriptions had been re-used in the city walls. Most inscriptions are from the Imperial period, with funerary and honorary texts being particularly well represented, but there are a handful of texts from all periods from the Hellenistic to Byzantine.</p><br>
<p>Excavations in Aphrodisias have also uncovered an important Jewish inscription whose context is unclear. The inscription, in Greek, lists donations made by numerous individuals, of whom several are classed as theosebeis, or Godfearers. It seems clear through comparative evidence from the inscriptions in the Sardis synagogue and from the New Testament that such Godfearers were probably interested gentiles who attached themselves to the Jewish community, supporting and perhaps frequenting the synagogue. The geographical spread of the evidence suggests this was a widespread phenomenon in Asia Minor during the Roman period.</p><br>
<h3>Frieze</h3><br>
<p>A frieze discovered in 1980 showing a bare breasted and helmeted female warrior labelled writhing in agony under the knee of a Roman soldier with to the left and below the inscription is assumed to depict Britain subjugated by Rome.</p><br>
<h2>Aphrodite of Aphrodisias</h2><br>
<p>The cult image that is particular to Aphrodisias, the Aphrodite of Aphrodisias, doubtless was once housed in the Temple of Aphrodite. She was a distinctive local goddess who became, by interpretatio graeca, identified with the Greek Aphrodite. Her canonical image, typical of Anatolian cult images, shows that she is related to the Lady of Ephesus, widely venerated in the Greco-Roman world as Artemis of Ephesus. The surviving images, from contexts where they must have been more civic than ritual, are without exception from the late phase of the cult, in Hellenistic and Roman times. They are rendered in the naturalistic style common to their culture, which gave the local goddess more universal appeal. Like the Lady of Ephesus, the "Aphrodite" of Aphrodisia wears a thick, form-disguising tunic, encasing her as if in a columnar box, always with four registers of standardized imagery. Her feet are of necessity close together, her forearms stretched forward, to receive and to give. She is adorned with necklaces and wears a mural crown together with a diadem and a wreath of myrtle, draped with a long veil that frames her face and extends to the ground. Beneath her overtunic she wears a floor-length chiton. The bands of decoration on the tunic, rendered in bas-relief, evoke the Goddess&#39;s cosmic powers: the Charites, the Three Graces that are the closest attendants of Aphrodite; heads of a married pair (the woman is veiled), identified by Lisa Brody as Gaia and Uranos, Earth and the Heavens, over which this goddess reigns, rather than as Zeus and Hera; Helios and Selene separated by a pillar; the marine Aphrodite, riding a sea-goat, and at the base a group of Erotes performing cult rituals.</p><br>
<h2>Archaeology</h2><br>
<p>The first formal excavations were undertaken in 1904-5, by a French railroad engineer, Paul Augustin Gaudin. Some of the architectural finds (mostly friezes, pilasters and capitals) he discovered at the site are now in the British Museum.</p><br>
<p>The most recent, ongoing excavations were begun by Kenan Erim under the aegis of New York University in 1962 and are currently led by Professor R. R. R. Smith (at Oxford University) and Professor Katharine Welch of the NYU Institute of Fine Arts. The findings reveal that the lavish building programme in the citys civic center was initiated and largely funded by one Gaius Julius Zoilus, a local who was a slave of Gaius Julius Caesar, set free by Octavian. When Zoilus returned as a freedman to his native city, endowed with prestige and rich rewards for his service, he shrewdly directed it to align with Octavian in his power struggle against Mark Antony. This ensured Octavians lasting favor in the form of financial privileges that allowed the city to prosper.</p><br>
<p>In September 2014, drones weighing about 0.5 kg were used to 3D map the above-ground ruins of Aphrodisias. The data is being analysed by the Austrian Archaeological Institute in Vienna.</p><br>
<p>Mount Kilimanjaro, with its three volcanic cones, "Kibo", "Mawenzi", and "Shira", is a dormant volcano in Tanzania. It is the highest mountain in Africa, about 4,900 m from its base to 5,895 m above sea level. The first people known to have reached the summit of the mountain were Hans Meyer and Ludwig Purtscheller in 1889. The mountain is part of the Kilimanjaro National Park and is a major climbing destination. The mountain has been the subject of many scientific studies because of its shrinking glaciers and disappearing ice fields.</p><br>
<h2>Geology and physical features</h2><br>
<p>Kilimanjaro is the highest dormant volcano in Africa.</p><br>
<p>Kilimanjaro is a large stratovolcano and is composed of three distinct volcanic cones: Kibo, the highest; Mawenzi at 5,149 m; and Shira, the shortest at 4,005 m. Mawenzi and Shira are extinct, while Kibo is dormant and could erupt again.</p><br>
<p>Uhuru Peak is the highest summit on Kibo&#39;s crater rim. The Tanzania National Parks Authority, a Tanzanian governmental agency, and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization Since then, the height has been measured as 5,892 m in 1999, 5,891 m in 2008, and 5,888 m in 2014.</p><br>
<h3>Geology</h3><br>
<p>The interior of the volcanic edifice is poorly known, given the lack of large scale erosion that could have exposed the interiors of the volcano.</p><br>
<p>Eruptive activity at the Shira centre commenced about 2.5 million years ago, with the last important phase occurring about 1.9 million years ago, just before the northern part of the edifice collapsed.</p><br>
<p>Both Mawenzi and Kibo began erupting about 1 million years ago.</p><br>
<p>The youngest dated rocks at Mawenzi are about 448,000 years old. Mawenzi forms a horseshoe shaped ridge with pinnacles and ridges opening to the northeast which has a tower-like shape resulting from deep erosion and a mafic dyke swarm. Several large cirques cut into the ring, the largest of these sits on top of the Great Barranco gorge. Also notable are the Ost and West Barrancos on the northeastern side of the mountain. Most of the eastern side of the mountain has been removed by erosion. Mawenzi has a subsidiary peak named Neumann Tower (4,425 m).</p><br>
<p>Kibo is the largest cone and is more than 15 mi wide at the "Saddle Plateau" altitude. The last activity here has been dated to between 150,000 and 200,000 years ago and created the current Kibo summit crater. Kibo still has gas-emitting fumaroles in the crater. Kibo is capped by an almost symmetrical cone with escarpments rising 180 m to 200 m on the south side. These escarpments define a 2.5 km caldera caused by the collapse of the summit. Within this caldera is the Inner Cone and within the crater of the Inner Cone is the Reusch Crater, which the Tanganyika government in 1954 named after Gustav Otto Richard Reusch upon his climbing the mountain for the 25th time (out of 65 attempts during his lifetime). The Ash Pit, 350 m deep, lies within the Reusch Crater. About 100,000 years ago, part of Kibo&#39;s crater rim collapsed, creating the area known as the Western Breach and the Great Barranco.</p><br>
<p>An almost continuous layer of lavas buries most older geological features, with the exception of exposed strata within the Great West Notch and the Kibo Barranco. The former exposes intrusions of syenite. Kibo has five main lava formations:</p><br>
<p>Phonotephrites and tephriphonolites of the "Lava Tower group", on a dyke cropping out at 4,600 m, 482,000 years ago</p><br>
<p>Tephriphonolite to phonolite lavas "characterized by rhomb mega-phenocrysts of sodic feldspars" of the "Rhomb Porphyry group", 460,000–360,000 years ago</p><br>
<p>aphyric phonolite lavas, "commonly underlain by basal obsidian horizons", of the "Lent group", 359,000–337,000 years ago</p><br>
<p>porphyritic tephriphonolite to phonolite lavas of the "Caldera rim group", 274,000–170,000 years ago</p><br>
<p>phonolite lava flows with aegirine phenocrysts, of the "Inner Crater group", which represents the last volcanic activity on Kibo</p><br>
<p>Kibo has more than 250 parasitic cones on its northwest and southeast flanks that were formed between 150,000 and 200,000 years ago and erupted picrobasalts, trachybasalts, ankaramites, and basanites. They reach as far as Lake Chala and Taveta in the southeast and the Lengurumani Plain in the northwest. Most of these cones are well preserved, with the exception of the Saddle Plateau cones that were heavily affected by glacial action. Despite their mostly small size, lava from the cones has obscured large portions of the mountain. The Saddle Plateau cones are mostly cinder cones with terminal effusion of lava, while the Upper Rombo Zone cones mostly generated lava flows. All Saddle Plateau cones predate the last glaciation.</p><br>
<p>According to reports gathered in the 19th century from the Maasai, Lake Chala on Kibo&#39;s eastern flank was the site of a village that was destroyed by an eruption.</p><br>
<h3>Drainage</h3><br>
<p>The mountain is drained by a network of rivers and streams, especially on the wetter and more heavily eroded southern side and especially above 1,200 m. Below that altitude, increased evaporation and human water usage reduces the waterflows. The Lumi and Pangani rivers drain Kilimanjaro on the eastern and southern sides, respectively.</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>The origin of the name "Kilimanjaro" is not precisely known, but a number of theories exist. European explorers had adopted the name by 1860 and reported that "Kilimanjaro" was the mountain&#39;s Kiswahili name. The 1907 edition of The Nuttall Encyclopædia also records the name of the mountain as "Kilima-Njaro".</p><br>
<p>Johann Ludwig Krapf wrote in 1860 that Swahilis along the coast called the mountain "Kilimanjaro". Although he did not support his claim, he claimed that "Kilimanjaro" meant either "mountain of greatness" or "mountain of caravans". Under the latter meaning, "Kilima" meant "mountain" and "Jaro" possibly meant "caravans".</p><br>
<p>Jim Thompson claimed in 1885, although he also did not support his claim, that the term Kilima-Njaro "has generally been understood to mean" the Mountain (Kilima) of Greatness (Njaro). "Though not improbably it may mean" the "White" mountain.</p><br>
<p>"Njaro" is an ancient Kiswahili word for "shining". Similarly, Krapf wrote that a chief of the Wakamba people, whom he visited in 1849, "had been to Jagga and had seen the Kima jaJeu, mountain of whiteness, the name given by the Wakamba to Kilimanjaro...." More correctly in the Kikamba language, this would be Kiima Kyeu, and this possible derivation has been popular with several investigators.</p><br>
<p>Others have assumed that "Kilima" is Kiswahili for "mountain". The problem with this assumption is that "Kilima" actually means "hill" and is, therefore, the diminutive of "Mlima", the proper Kiswahili word for mountain. However, "t is... possible... that an early European visitor, whose knowledge of was not extensive, changed mlima to kilima by analogy with the two Wachagga names; Kibo and Kimawenzi."</p><br>
<p>A different approach is to assume that the "Kileman" part of Kilimanjaro comes from the Kichagga "kileme", which means "which defeats", or "kilelema", which means "which has become difficult or impossible". The "Jaro" part would "then be derived from njaare, a bird, or, according to other informants, a leopard, or, possibly from jyaro a caravan." Considering that the name Kilimanjaro has never been current among the Wachagga people, it is possible that the name was derived from Wachagga saying that the mountain was unclimbable, "kilemanjaare" or "kilemajyaro" and porters misinterpreted this as being the name of the mountain.</p><br>
<p>In the 1880s, the mountain became a part of German East Africa and was called "Kilima-Ndscharo" in German following the Kiswahili name components.</p><br>
<p>On 6 October 1889, Hans Meyer reached the highest summit on the crater ridge of Kibo. He named it "Kaiser-Wilhelm-Spitze" ("Kaiser Wilhelm peak"). That name apparently was used until Tanzania was formed in 1964, when the summit was renamed "Uhuru Peak", meaning "Freedom Peak" in Kiswahili.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>First sightings by non-indigenous explorers</h3><br>
<p>The mountain may have been known to non-Africans since antiquity. Sailors&#39; reports recorded by Ptolemy mention a "Moon Mountain" and a spring lake of the Nile, which may indicate Kilimanjaro; although available historical information does not allow differentiation among Mount Kenya, the mountains of Ethiopia, the Virunga Mountains, Kilimanjaro, and the Rwenzori Mountains. Before Ptolemy, Aeschylus and Herodotus referred to "Egypt nurtured by the snows" and a spring between two mountains, respectively. One of these mentions two tall mountains in the coastal regions with a valley with traces of fire in between. Martín Fernández de Enciso, a Spanish traveller to Mombasa who obtained information about the interior from native caravans, said in his Summa de Geografía (1519) that west of Mombasa "stands the Ethiopian Mount Olympus, which is exceedingly high, and beyond it are the Mountains of the Moon, in which are the sources of the Nile".</p><br>
<p>The German missionaries Johannes Rebmann of Mombasa and Krapf were the first Europeans to try to reach the snowy mountain. According to English geographer Halford Mackinder and English explorer Harry Johnston, Rebmann in 1848 was the first European to report the existence of Kilimanjaro. Hans Meyer has claimed that Rebmann first arrived in Africa in 1846 and has quoted Rebmanns diary entry of 11 May 1848 as saying, "This morning, at 10 oclock, we obtained a clearer view of the mountains of Jagga, the summit of one of which was covered by what looked like a beautiful white cloud. When I inquired as to the dazzling whiteness, the guide merely called it cold and at once I knew it could be neither more nor less than snow.... Immediately I understood how to interpret the marvelous tales Dr. Krapf and I had heard at the coast, of a vast mountain of gold and silver in the far interior, the approach to which was guarded by evil spirits." In light of these sources, J. Shearson Hyland&#39;s assertion that Rebmann first saw the mountain in 1840 appears to be erroneous.</p><br>
<h3>Climbing history</h3><br>
<h4>Nineteenth-century explorers</h4><br>
<p>In August 1861, the Prussian officer Baron Karl Klaus von der Decken accompanied by English geologist R. Thornton made a first attempt to climb Kibo but "got no farther than 8,200 feet owing to the inclemency of the weather."</p><br>
<p>In August 1871, missionary Charles New became the "first European to reach the equatorial snows" on Kilimanjaro at an elevation of slightly more than 13,000 ft.</p><br>
<p>In June 1887, the Hungarian Count Sámuel Teleki and Austrian Lieutenant Ludwig von Höhnel made an attempt to climb the mountain. Approaching from the saddle between Mawenzi and Kibo, Höhnel stopped at 4,950 meters, but Teleki pushed through until he reached the snow at 5,300 meters.</p><br>
<p>Later in 1887 during his first attempt to climb Kilimanjaro, the German geology professor Hans Meyer reached the lower edge of the ice cap on Kibo, where he was forced to turn back because he lacked the equipment needed to handle the ice. The following year, Meyer planned another attempt with Oscar Baumann, a cartographer, but the mission was aborted after the pair were held hostage and ransomed during the Abushiri Revolt.</p><br>
<p>In the autumn of 1888, the American naturalist Dr. Abbott and the German explorer Otto Ehrenfried Ehlers approached the summit from the northwest. While Abbott turned back earlier, Ehlers at first claimed to have reached the summit rim but, after severe criticism of that claim, later withdrew it.</p><br>
<p>In 1889, Meyer returned to Kilimanjaro with the Austrian mountaineer Ludwig Purtscheller for a third attempt. The success of this attempt was based on the establishment of several campsites with food supplies so that multiple attempts at the top could be made without having to descend too far. Meyer and Purtscheller pushed to near the crater rim on October 3 but turned around exhausted from hacking footsteps in the icy slope. Three days later, on Purtscheller&#39;s fortieth birthday, they reached the highest summit on the southern rim of the crater. They were the first to confirm that Kibo has a crater. After descending to the saddle between Kibo and Mawenzi, Meyer and Purtscheller attempted to climb the more technically challenging Mawenzi but could reach only the top of Klute Peak, a subsidiary peak, before retreating due to illness. On October 18, they reascended Kibo to enter and study the crater, cresting the rim at Hans Meyers Notch. In total, Meyer and Purtscheller spent 16 days above 15,000 feet during their expedition. They were accompanied in their high camps by Mwini Amani of Pangani, who cooked and supplied the sites with water and firewood.</p><br>
<p>The first ascent of the highest summit of Mawenzi was made on 29 July 1912, by the German climbers Edward Oehler and Fritz Klute, who named it Hans Meyer Peak. Oehler and Klute went on to make the third-ever ascent of Kibo, via the Drygalski Glacier, and descended via the Western Breach.</p><br>
<p>In 1989, the organizing committee of the 100-year celebration of the first ascent decided to award posthumous certificates to the African porter-guides who had accompanied Meyer and Purtscheller. One person in pictures or documents of the 1889 expedition was thought to match a living inhabitant of Marangu, Yohani Kinyala Lauwo. Lauwo did not know his own age. Nor did he remember Meyer or Purtscheller, but he remembered joining a Kilimanjaro expedition involving a Dutch doctor who lived near the mountain and that he did not get to wear shoes during the climb. Lauwo claimed that he had climbed the mountain three times before the beginning of World War I. The committee concluded that he had been a member of Meyer&#39;s team and therefore must have been born around 1871. Lauwo died on 10 May 1996, 107 years after the first ascent, but now is sometimes even suggested as co-first-ascendant of Kilimanjaro.</p><br>
<h4>Fastest ascent and descent</h4><br>
<p>The fastest ascent-descent has been recorded by the Swiss-Ecuadorian mountain guide Karl Egloff (born 16 March 1981 in Quito), who ran to the top and back in 6 hours and 42 minutes on 13 August 2014. Previous records were held by Spanish mountain runner Kílian Jornet (7 hours, 14 minutes on 29 September 2010) and by Tanzanian guide Simon Mtuy (9 hours, 21 minutes on 22 February 2006).</p><br>
<h4>Fastest female ascent and descent</h4><br>
<p>The female ascent record is held by Anne-Marie Flammersfeld. On 27 July 2015, she climbed to the summit in 8 hours, 32 minutes via the Umbwe Route, which is about 30 km long. Born in Germany but living in Switzerland, she broke the record of Britain&#39;s Becky Shuttleworth who climbed to the summit in 11 hours, 34 minutes on 20 September 2014.</p><br>
<p>Flammersfeld then needed 4 hours, 26 minutes to run down to the Mweka Gate, for a combined ascent and descent time of 12 hours, 58 minutes. That broke the previous record of 18 hours, 31 minutes held by Debbie Bachman.</p><br>
<h4>Youngest and oldest people to summit</h4><br>
<p>Despite an age-limit of 10 years for a climbing permit, exceptions are occasionally granted, and Keats Boyd of Los Angeles was only seven years old when he summited Kilimanjaro on 21 January 2008. The oldest person to reach Uhuru Peak was Angela Vorobeva at age 86 years and 267 days. The oldest man to summit the mountain is American Robert Wheeler, who was 85 years and 201 days when he summited on 2 October 2014.</p><br>
<h4>Ascents by people with disabilities</h4><br>
<p>Wheelchair user Bernard Goosen scaled Kilimanjaro in six days in 2007, while in 2012 Kyle Maynard, who has no forearms or lower legs, crawled unassisted to the summit of Mount Kilimanjaro.</p><br>
<h4>First descent by snowboard</h4><br>
<p>The first descent by snowboard was accomplished by Ace Bailey on July 1st, 1988. This descent, at the time, was also the highest altitude descent by snowboard ever accomplished. This record was held until July the following year. The ride was photographed by Barry Lewis.</p><br>
<h2>Trekking Kilimanjaro</h2><br>
<h3>Overview</h3><br>
<p>Kilimanjaro National Park generated US $51 million in revenue in 2013, the second-most of any Tanzanian national park. (The Ngorongoro Conservation Area, which includes the heavily visited Ngorongoro Crater, is not a national park.) The Tanzania National Parks Authority reported that the park recorded 57,456 tourists during the 2011-12 budget year, of whom 16,425 hiked the mountain, which was well below the capacity of 28,470 as specified in the park&#39;s General Management Plan. The mountain climbers generated irregular and seasonal jobs for about 11,000 guides, porters, and cooks in 2007, although serious concerns have been raised about their poor working conditions and inadequate wages.</p><br>
<p>There are seven official trekking routes by which to ascend and descend Mount Kilimanjaro: Lemosho, Machame, Marangu, Mweka, Rongai, Shira, and Umbwe. Of all the routes, Machame is widely proclaimed as the most scenic, albeit steeper, route. This was true until the opening of Lemosho and Northern Circuit routes, which are equally scenic if not more. The Machame route can be done in six or seven days. Lemosho and the Northern Circuit routes can be done in seven or more days. The Rongai is the easiest and least scenic of all camping routes. The Marangu is also relatively easy, but this route tends to be very busy, the ascent and descent routes are the same, and accommodation is in shared huts with all other climbers.</p><br>
<p>People who wish to trek to the summit of Kilimanjaro are advised to undertake appropriate research and ensure that they are both properly equipped and physically capable. Though the climb is technically not as challenging as when climbing the high peaks of the Himalayas or Andes, the high elevation, low temperature, and occasional high winds make this a difficult and dangerous trek. Acclimatization is essential, and even the most experienced trekkers suffer some degree of altitude sickness.</p><br>
<h3>Dangers</h3><br>
<p>A small study of people attempting to reach the summit of Kilimanjaro in July and August 2005 found that 61.3 percent succeeded and 77 percent experienced acute mountain sickness (AMS). A retrospective study of 917 persons who attempted to reach the summit via the Lemosho or Machame routes found that 70.4 percent experienced AMS, defined in this study to be headache, nausea, diarrhea, vomiting, or loss of appetite.</p><br>
<p>Kilimanjaro&#39;s summit is well above the altitude at which life-threatening high altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE) or high altitude cerebral edema (HACE), the most severe forms of AMS, can occur. These health risks are increased substantially by excessively fast climbing schedules motivated by high daily national park fees, busy holiday travel schedules, and the lack of permanent shelter on most routes.</p><br>
<p>A daily dose of 250 milligrams of acetazolamide is associated with a 48 percent relative-risk reduction of AMS compared to placebo, with a higher dose not providing additional protection but causing more adverse side effects. The six-day Machame route, which involves one night of "sleeping low", may delay the onset of AMS but does not ultimately prevent its occurrence.</p><br>
<p>Falls on steep portions of the mountain and rock slides have killed trekkers. For this reason, the route via the Arrow Glacier was closed for several years, reopening in December 2007.</p><br>
<p>Due to the improper disposal of human waste in the mountain environment there is high risk of health hazards. Human faeces are very dangerous; they contain over 100 bacteria, protozoans and viruses that, without a specialised recycling process, pose a threat to both animals and human beings. Only boiled or chemically treated water is accepted for drinking. Decent changes have appeared in recent years–management bodies care more about human waste disposal. The authorities in mountain regions are gradually exchanging the old, leaking toilets for newer, eco–friendly models.</p><br>
<h3>Deaths</h3><br>
<p>According to the Kilimanjaro Christian Medical Centre in Moshi, 25 people died from January 1996 to October 2003 while climbing the mountain. Seventeen were female and eight were male, ranging in age from 29 to 74. Fourteen died from advanced high altitude illness, including one with HACE, five with HAPE, and six with both HACE and HAPE. The remaining eleven deaths resulted from trauma (three), myocardial infarction (four), pneumonia (two), cardio-pulmonary failure of other underlying cause (one), and acute appendicitis (one). The overall mortality rate was an estimated 13.6 per 100,000 climbers (0.0136 percent).</p><br>
<p>In January 2006, three persons from the United States were killed in a rock fall while climbing Kilimanjaro.</p><br>
<p>On 19 September 2008, ex-Central Intelligence Agency agent Ken Moskow died from altitude sickness while just 20 yards short of reaching the summit of Kilimanjaro.</p><br>
<p>On 12 September 2015, 33-year-old Scott Dinsmore from the United States was killed in a rock fall while climbing Kilimanjaro.</p><br>
<p>On 18 July 2016, South African rally champion Gugu Zulu died while climbing Mount Kilimanjaro. Gugu was climbing Kilimanjaro with his wife Letshego and project leader Richard Mabaso. The team was led by experienced mountaineer, Sibusiso Vilane. Gugu was part of the Trek4Mandela initiative that saw prominent South Africans try to summit the mountain for Mandela Day.</p><br>
<h2>Mapping</h2><br>
<p>A map of the Kibo cone on Mount Kilimanjaro was published by the British government&#39;s Directorate of Overseas Surveys in 1964 based on aerial photography conducted in 1962 (Subset of Kilimanjaro, East Africa (Tanganyika) Series Y742, Sheet 56/2, D.O.S. 422 1964, Edition 1, Scale 1:50,000).</p><br>
<p>Tourist mapping was first published by the Ordnance Survey in England in 1989 based on the original DOS mapping (1:100,000, 100 ft intervals, DOS 522). West Col Productions produced a map with tourist information in 1990 (1:75,000, 100 metre contour intervals, inset maps of Kibo and Mawenzi on 1:20,000 and 1:30,000 scales respectively and 50 metre contour interval). In the last few years, numerous other maps have become available of various qualities.</p><br>
<h2>Vegetation</h2><br>
<p>Natural forests cover about 1,000 km&sup2; on Kilimanjaro. In the foothill area maize, beans, and sunflowers (on the western side also wheat) are cultivated. Remnants of the former savanna vegetation with Acacia, Combretum, Terminalia and Grewia also occur. Between 1,000 m and 1,800 m, coffee also appears as part of the "Chagga home gardens" agroforestry. Native vegetation at this altitude range (Strombosia, Newtonia, and Entandrophragma) is limited to inaccessible valleys and gorges and is completely different from vegetation at higher altitudes. On the southern slope montane forests first contain Ocotea usambarensis as well as ferns and epiphytes, farther up in cloud forests Podocarpus latifolius, Hagenia abyssinica and Erica excelsa grow as well as fog-dependent mosses. On the drier northern slopes olive, Croton-Calodendrum, Cassipourea, and Juniperus form forests in order of increasing altitude. Between 3,100 m and 3,900 m lie Erica bush and heathlands, followed by Helichrysum until 4,500 m.</p><br>
<p>Records from the Maundi crater at 2,780 m indicate that the vegetation of Kilimanjaro has varied over time. Forest vegetation retreated during the Last Glacial Maximum and the ericaceous vegetation belt lowered by 1,500 m between 42,000 and 30,000 years ago because of the drier and colder conditions.</p><br>
<h2>Animal life</h2><br>
<p>Large animals are rare on Kilimanjaro and are more frequent in the forests and lower parts of the mountain. Elephants and Cape buffaloes are among the animals that can be potentially hazardous to trekkers. Bushbucks, chameleons, dik-diks, duikers, mongooses, sunbirds, and warthogs have been reported as well. Zebras and hyenas have sporadically been observed on the Shira plateau.</p><br>
<p>Specific species associated with the mountain include the Kilimanjaro shrew and the chameleon Kinyongia tavetana.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>The climate of Kilimanjaro is influenced by the height of the mountain, which allows the simultaneous influence of the equatorial trade winds and the high altitude anti-trades, and the isolated position of the mountain. Kilimanjaro has daily upslope and nightly downslope winds, a regimen stronger on the southern than the northern side of the mountain. The flatter southern flanks are more extended and affect the atmosphere more strongly.</p><br>
<p>Kilimanjaro has two distinct rainy seasons, one from March to May and another around November. The northern slopes receive much less rainfall than the southern ones. The lower southern slope receives 800 to 900 mm annually, rising to 1500 to 2000 mm at 1,500 m altitude and peaking "partly over" 3,000 mm in the forest belt at 2000 to 2300 m. In the alpine zone, annual precipitation decreases to 200 mm.</p><br>
<p>The average temperature in the summit area is approximately -7 &deg;C. Nighttime surface temperatures on the Northern Ice Field (NIF) fall on average to -9 &deg;C with an average daytime high temperature of -4 &deg;C. During nights of extreme radiational cooling, the NIF can cool to as low as -15 to -27 C.</p><br>
<p>Snowfall can occur any time of year but is associated mostly with northern Tanzania&#39;s two rainy seasons (November–December and March–May). Precipitation in the summit area occurs principally as snow and graupel (250 to 500 mm per year) and ablates within days or years.</p><br>
<h3>Climate zones</h3><br>
<p>Bushland, 800 m – 1,800 m (2,600 ft – 5,900 ft)</p><br>
<p>Rainweald, 1,800 m – 2,800 m (5,900 ft – 9,200 ft)</p><br>
<p>Heath and Moorland, 2,800 m – 4,000 m (9,200 ft – 13,100 ft)</p><br>
<p>Highland Barrens, 4,000 m – 5,000 m (13,100 ft– 16,400 ft)</p><br>
<p>Ice Cap, 5,000 m – 5,895 m (16,400 ft – 19,341 ft).</p><br>
<h2>Glaciers</h2><br>
<p>Kibo&#39;s diminishing ice cap exists because Kilimanjaro is a little-dissected, massive mountain that rises above the snow line. The cap is divergent and outwards splits up into individual glaciers. The central portion of the ice cap is interrupted by the presence of the Kibo crater. The summit glaciers and ice fields do not display significant horizontal movements because their low thickness precludes major deformation.</p><br>
<p>Geological evidence shows five successive glacial episodes during the Quaternary period, namely First (500,000 BP), Second (greater than 360,000 years ago to 240,000 BP), Third (150,000 to 120,000 BP), Fourth (also known as "Main") (20,000 to 17,000 BP), and Little (16,000 to 14,000 BP). The Third may have been the most extensive, and the Little appears to be statistically indistinguishable from the Fourth.</p><br>
<p>A continuous ice cap covering approximately 400 km&sup2; down to an elevation of 3,200 m covered Kilimanjaro during the Last Glacial Maximum in the Pleistocene epoch (the Main glacial episode), extending across the summits of Kibo and Mawenzi. Ice cores taken from Kilimanjaro&#39;s Northern Ice Field (NIF) indicates that the glaciers there have a "basal age" of about 11,700 years, although an analysis of ice taken in 2011 from exposed vertical cliffs in the NIF supports an age extending only to 800 years BP.</p><br>
<p>Higher precipitation rates at the beginning of the Holocene epoch (11,500 years BP) allowed the ice cap to reform.</p><br>
<p>In the late 1880s, the summit of Kibo was completely covered by an ice cap covering about 20 km&sup2; with outlet glaciers cascading down the western and southern slopes, and except for the inner cone, the entire caldera was buried. Glacier ice also flowed through the Western Breach.</p><br>
<p>The slope glaciers retreated rapidly between 1912 and 1953, in response to a sudden shift in climate at the end of the 19th century that made them "drastically out of equilibrium", and more slowly thereafter. Their continuing demise indicates they are still out of equilibrium in response to a constant change in climate over the last 100 years.</p><br>
<p>In contrast to the persistent slope glaciers, the glaciers on Kilimanjaro&#39;s crater plateau have appeared and disappeared repeatedly during the Holocene epoch, with each cycle lasting a few hundred years. It appears that decreasing specific humidity instead of temperature changes has caused the shrinkage of the slope glaciers since the late 19th century. No clear warming trend at the elevation of those glaciers occurred between 1948 and 2005. Although air temperatures at that elevation are always below freezing, solar radiation causes melting on their vertical faces. "There is no pathway for the plateau glaciers other than to continuously retreat once their vertical margins are exposed to solar radiation." Vertical ice margin walls are a unique characteristic of the summit glaciers and a major place of the shrinkage of the glaciers. They manifest stratifications, calving, and other ice features.</p><br>
<p>Almost 85 percent of the ice cover on Kilimanjaro disappeared from October 1912 to June 2011, with coverage decreasing from 11.40 km&sup2; to 1.76 km&sup2;. From 1912 to 1953, there was about a 1.1 percent average annual loss. The average annual loss for 1953 to 1989 was 1.4 percent while the loss rate for 1989 to 2007 was 2.5 percent. Of the ice cover still present in 2000, almost 40 percent had disappeared by 2011. The glaciers are thinning in addition to losing areal coverage, and do not have active accumulation zones with retreat occurring on all glacier surfaces. Loss of glacier mass is caused by both melting and sublimation. While the current shrinking and thinning of Kilimanjaro&#39;s ice fields appears to be unique within its almost twelve millennium history, it is contemporaneous with widespread glacier retreat in mid-to-low latitudes across the globe. At the current rate, most of the ice on Kilimanjaro will disappear by 2040 and "it is highly unlikely that any ice body will remain after 2060".</p><br>
<p>A complete disappearance of the ice would be of only "negligible importance" to the water budget of the area around the mountain. The forests of Kilimanjaro, far below the ice fields, "are essential water reservoirs for the local and regional populations".</p><br>
<p>The Kilimanjaro glaciers have been used for deriving ice core records, including two from the southern icefield. Based on this data, this icefield formed between 1,250 and 1,450 years BP.</p><br>
<h2>Mythology</h2><br>
<p>Local legends by the Chagga people tell how a man named Tone once provoked a god, Ruwa, to bring famine upon the land. The people became angry at Tone, forcing him to flee. Nobody wanted to protect him but a solitary dweller who had stones that turned miraculously into cattle. The dweller bid that Tone never open the stable of the cattle. When Tone did not heed the warning and the cattle escaped, Tone followed them, but the fleeing cattle threw up hills to run on, including Mawenzi and Kibo. Tone finally collapsed on Kibo, ending the pursuit.</p><br>
<p>Another legend has it that Kibo and Mawenzi were good neighbours, until Mawenzi played a prank on Kibo and threw away embers he had received from Kibo and claimed that they had burned out. Kibo eventually got angry and beat Mawenzi badly, explaining why the mountain is so badly degraded. This theory explains Mawenzi&#39;s name as "the Battered".</p><br>
<p>Other legends tell of ivory-filled graves of elephants on the mountain, and of a cow named Rayli that produces miraculous fat from her tail glands. If a man tries to steal such a gland but is too slow in his moves, Rayli will blast a powerful snort and blow the thief hurling down into the plain.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>Under Kilimanjaro is a non-fiction novel by Ernest Hemingway about his travels in the region.</p><br>
<p>Sia lives on Kilimanjaro is a children&#39;s book by Astrid Lindgren.</p><br>
<p>The Snows of Kilimanjaro is a short story by Hemingway that references Kilimanjaro. The story was adapted into a film in 1952.</p><br>
<p>In the film An Inconvenient Truth, former United States vice president Al Gore stated, "Within the decade, there will be no more snows of Kilimanjaro."</p><br>
<p>Filles de Kilimanjaro, a 1968 album by Miles Davis.</p><br>
<p>The rock band Toto song mentions Kilimanjaro in its 1982 song "Africa".</p><br>
<p>In the 1994 Disney film The Lion King, Kilimanjaro can be seen in the background during the opening music sequence "Circle of Life", as the film was set in Tanzania.</p><br>
<p>Popular British YouTuber KSI made a song in 2015 called Kilimanjaro.</p><br>
<p>Mount Kilimanjaro that features in Madagascar sequel, Madagascar: Escape 2 Africa.</p><br>
<p>In the Halo video game series, a medal named "Killmanjaro" is awarded to a player who gets seven multiplayer kills in a row within four seconds of each kill. The mountain itself also features in Halo 3.</p><br>
<p>The mountain was shown in BBC&#39;s Africa.</p><br>
<h2>Miscellany</h2><br>
<p>According to the Tanzania National Parks Authority, the first wedding performed on the mountain below the summit took place on 21 September 2014, when an American couple exchanged vows at Shira 2 Camp. In 2011, a couple had exchanged their vows at the summit.</p><br>
<p>On 26 September 2014, a new world record for the highest-ever cricket match was set when a group of international cricketers played on a flat crater on the mountain at an elevation of 5,730 m.</p><br>
<p>Lake Titicaca  is a large, deep lake in the Andes on the border of Bolivia and Peru. By volume of water and by surface area, it is the largest lake in South America. Lake Maracaibo has a larger surface area, but it is a tidal bay, not a lake.</p><br>
<p>It is often called the "highest navigable lake" in the world, with a surface elevation of 3,812 m. Although this refers to navigation by large boats, it is generally considered to mean commercial craft. For many years the largest vessel afloat on the lake was the 2,200-ton, 79 m SS Ollanta. Today the largest vessel is most likely the similarly sized, but broader, train barge/float Manco Capac, operated by PeruRail (berthed, as of 17 June 2013, at -15.8364&deg; latitude, -70.0147&deg; longitude, across the pier from the Ollanta). Numerous smaller bodies of water around the world are at higher elevations.</p><br>
<h2>Overview</h2><br>
<p>The lake is located at the northern end of the endorheic Altiplano basin high in the Andes on the border of Peru and Bolivia. The western part of the lake lies within the Puno Region of Peru, and the eastern side is located in the Bolivian La Paz Department.</p><br>
<p>The lake is composed of two nearly separate sub-basins connected by the Strait of Tiquina, which is 800 m across at the narrowest point. The larger sub-basin, Lago Grande (also called Lago Chucuito), has a mean depth of 135 m and a maximum depth of 284 m. The smaller sub-basin, Wiñaymarka (also called Lago Pequeño, "little lake"), has a mean depth of 9 m and a maximum depth of 40 m. The overall average depth of the lake is 107 m.</p><br>
<p>Five major river systems feed into Lake Titicaca. In order of their relative flow volumes these are Ramis, Coata, Ilave, Huancané, and Suchez. More than twenty other smaller streams empty into Titicaca. The lake has 41 islands, some of which are densely populated.</p><br>
<p>Having only a single season of free circulation, the lake is monomictic, and water passes through Lago Huiñaimarca and flows out the single outlet at the Río Desaguadero, which then flows south through Bolivia to Lake Poopó. This only accounts for about 10% of the lake&#39;s water balance. Evapotranspiration, caused by strong winds and intense sunlight at high altitude, balances the remaining 90% of the water loss. It is nearly a closed lake.</p><br>
<p>Since 2000 Lake Titicaca has experienced constantly receding water levels. Between April and November 2009 alone the water level dropped by 81 cm, reaching the lowest level since 1949. This drop is caused by shortened rainy seasons and the melting of glaciers feeding the tributaries of the lake. Water pollution is also an increasing concern because cities in the Titicaca watershed grow, sometimes outpacing solid waste and sewage treatment infrastructure. According to the Global Nature Fund (GNF), Titicaca&#39;s biodiversity is threatened by water pollution and the introduction of new species by humans. Already in 2012, the GNF nominated the lake "Threatened Lake of the Year".</p><br>
<h2>Temperature</h2><br>
<p>The cold sources and winds over the lake give it an average surface temperature of 10 to 14 C. In the winter (June – September), mixing occurs with the deeper waters, which are always between 10 to 11 C.</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>Neither the protohistoric nor prehistoric name for Lake Titicaca is currently known. Given the various Native American groups that occupied the Lake Titicaca region, it is likely that it lacked a single, commonly accepted name in prehistoric times and at the time the Spaniards arrived.</p><br>
<p>The terms titi and caca can be translated in multiple ways. In Aymara, titi can be translated as either puma, lead, or a heavy metal. The word caca (kaka) can be translated as white or gray hairs of the head and the term k’ak’a can be translated as either crack or fissure or, alternatively, comb of a bird. In addition to names including the term titi and/or caca, Lake Titicaca was also known as Chuquivitu in the sixteenth century. This name can be loosely translated as lance point. This name survives in modern usage in which the large lake is occasionally referred to as Lago Chucuito.</p><br>
<p>Stanish argues that the logical explanation for the origin of the name Titicaca is a corruption of the term thakhsi cala, which is the fifteenth- to sixteenth-century name of the sacred rock on the Island of the Sun. Given the lack of a common name for Lake Titicaca in the sixteenth century, it is argued that the Spaniards used the name of the site of the most important indigenous shrine in the region, thakhsi cala on the Island of the Sun, as the name for the lake. In time and with usage, this name developed into Titicaca.</p><br>
<p>Locally, the lake goes by several names. The small lake to the south is called Huiñamarca. The large lake also is occasionally referred to as Lago Mayor, and the small lake as Lago Menor. In addition, the southeast quarter of the lake is separate from the main body (connected only by the Strait of Tiquina), and the Bolivians call it Lago Huiñaymarca (also Wiñay Marka, which in Aymara means The Eternal City) and the larger part Lago Chucuito. In Peru, these smaller and larger parts are referred to as Lago Pequeño and Lago Grande, respectively.</p><br>
<h2>Ecology</h2><br>
<p>Lake Titicaca is home to more than 530 aquatic species.</p><br>
<p>The lake holds large populations of water birds and was designated as a Ramsar Site on August 26, 1998. Several threatened species such as the huge Titicaca water frog and the flightless Titicaca grebe are largely or entirely restricted to the lake, and the Titicaca orestias has likely become extinct (last seen in 1938) due to competition and predation by the introduced rainbow trout and the silverside Odontesthes bonariensis. In addition to the Titicaca orestias, native fish species in the lake&#39;s basin are other species of Orestias, and the catfish Trichomycterus dispar, T. rivulatus and Astroblepus stuebeli (the last species not in the lake itself, but in associated ecosystems). and feeding behavior. About 90% of the fish species in the basin are endemic, including 23 species of Orestias that only are found in the lake. In addition to the threatened Titicaca grebe, some of the birds associated with water at Titicaca are the white-tufted grebe, Puna ibis, Chilean flamingo, Andean gull, Andean lapwing, white-backed stilt, greater yellowlegs, snowy egret, black-crowned night-heron, Andean coot, common gallinule, plumbeous rail, various ducks, wren-like rushbird, many-colored rush-tyrant and yellow-winged blackbird.</p><br>
<p>Titicaca is home to 24 described species of freshwater snails (15 endemics, including several tiny Heleobia) and less than half a dozen bivalves (all in family Sphaeriidae), but in general these are very poorly known and their taxonomy is in need of a review. The lake also has an endemic species flock of amphipods consisting of 11 Hyalella (an additional Titicaca Hyalella species is non-endemic).</p><br>
<p>Reeds and other aquatic vegetation is widespread in Lake Titicaca. Totora reeds grow in water shallower than 3 m, less frequently to 5.5 m, but macrophytes, notably Chara and Potamogeton, occur down to 10 m. In sheltered shallow waters, such as the harbour of Puno, Azolla, Elodea, Lemna and Myriophyllum are common.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The Tinajani Basin, in which Lake Titicaca lies, is an intermontane basin. This basin is a pull-apart basin created by strike-slip movement along regional faults starting in the late Oligocene and ending in the late Miocene. The initial development of the Tinajani Basin is indicated by volcanic rocks, which accumulated between 27 and 20 million years ago within this basin. They lie upon an angular unconformity which cuts across pre-basin strata. Lacustrine sediments of the Lower Tinajani Formation, which are exposed within the Tinajani Basin, demonstrate the presence of a pre-Quaternary, ancestral Lake Titicaca within it between 18 and 14 million years ago. Little is known about the prehistory of Lake Titicaca between 14 million years ago and 370,000 BP because the lake sediments dating to this period lie buried beneath the bottom of Lake Titicaca and have not yet been sampled by continuous coring.</p><br>
<p>The Lake Titicaca drilling project</p><br>
<p>Lacustrine sediments and associated terraces provide evidence for the past existence of five major prehistoric lakes that occupied the Tinajani Basin during the Pliocene and Pleistocene. Within the northern Altiplano (Tinajani Basin), these prehistoric lakes were Lake Mataro at an elevation of 3,950 m, Lake Cabana at an elevation of 3,900 m, Lake Ballivián at an elevation of 3,860 m, Lake (North) Minchin at an elevation of 3,825 m, and Lake (North) Tauca at an elevation 3,815 m. The age of Lake Mataro is uncertain—it may date back to the Late Pliocene. Lake Cabana possibly dates to the Middle Pleistocene. Lake Ballivián existed between 120,000 and 98,000 BP. Two high lake stands, between 72,000 – 68,000 BP and 44,000 – 34,000 BP, have been discerned for Lake Minchin within the Altiplano. Another ancient lake in the area is Ouki. The high lake levels of Lake Tauca have been dated as having occurred between 18,100 and 14,100 BP.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>Lake Titicaca has a borderline Subtropical highland/Alpine climate with cool to cold temperatures for most of the year. The average annual precipitation is 610 mm (24 in.) mostly falling in summer thunderstorms. Winters are dry with very cold nights and mornings and warm afternoons. Below are the average temperatures of the town Juliaca in the northern part of the lake.</p><br>
<h2>Islands</h2><br>
<h3>Uros</h3><br>
<p>The "Floating Islands" are small manmade islands constructed by the Uros (or Uru) people from layers of cut totora, a thick buoyant reed that grows abundantly in the shallows of Lake Titicaca. The Uros harvest the reeds that naturally grow on the lake&#39;s banks to make the islands by continuously adding reeds to the surface.</p><br>
<p>According to legend, the Uru people originated in the Amazon and migrated to the area of Lake Titicaca in the pre-Colombian era, where they were oppressed by the local population and were unable to secure land of their own. They built the reed islands, which could be moved into deep water or to different parts of the lake as necessary, for greater safety from their hostile neighbors on land.</p><br>
<p>Golden in color, many of the islands measure about 50 by, and the largest are approximately half the size of a football field. Each island contains several thatched houses, typically belonging to members of a single extended family. Some of the islands have watchtowers and other buildings, also constructed of reeds.</p><br>
<p>Historically, most of the Uros islands were located near the middle of the lake, about from the shore; however, in 1986, after a major storm devastated the islands, many Uros rebuilt closer to shore., about 1,200 Uros lived on an archipelago of 60 artificial islands, clustering in the western corner of the lake near Puno, Titicacas major Peruvian port town. The islands have become one of Perus tourist attractions, allowing the Uros to supplement their hunting and fishing by conveying visitors to the islands by motorboat and selling handicrafts.</p><br>
<h3>Amantani</h3><br>
<p>Amantani is another small island on Lake Titicaca populated by Quechua speakers. About 4,000 people live in ten communities on the roughly circular 15 km&sup2; island. There are two mountain peaks, called Pachatata (Father Earth) and Pachamama (Mother Earth), and ancient ruins on the top of both peaks. The hillsides that rise up from the lake are terraced and planted with wheat, potatoes, and vegetables. Most of the small fields are worked by hand. Long stone fences divide the fields, and cattle and sheep graze on the hillsides.</p><br>
<p>There are no cars on the island and no hotels. Since machines are not allowed on the island, all agriculture is done by hand. A few small stores sell basic goods, and there is a health clinic and 6 schools. Electricity was produced by a generator and provided limited power a couple of hours each day, but with the rising price of the petroleum, they no longer use the generator. Most families use candles or flashlights powered by batteries or hand-cranks. Small solar panels have recently been installed on some homes.</p><br>
<p>Some of the families on Amantani open their homes to tourists for overnight stays and provide cooked meals, arranged through tour guides. The families who do so are required to have a special room set aside for the tourists and must fit a code by the tourist companies that help them. Guests typically take food staples (cooking oil, rice, etc. but no sugar products, as they have no dental facilities) as a gift or school supplies for the children on the island. They hold nightly traditional dance shows for the tourists where they offer to dress them up in their traditional clothes and participate.</p><br>
<h3>Taquile</h3><br>
<p>Taquile is a hilly island located 45 kilometers east of Puno. It is narrow and long and was used as a prison during the Spanish Colony and into the 20th century. In 1970 it became property of the Taquile people, who have inhabited the island since then (current population around 2,200). The taquiean Island is 5.5 by 1.6 km in size (maximum measurements), with an area of 5.72 km². The highest point of the island is 4,050 meters above sea level and the main village is at 3,950 m. Pre-Inca ruins are found on the highest part of the island, and agricultural terraces on hillsides. From the hillsides of Taquile you have a view over the white snow tops of the Bolivian mountains. The inhabitants, known as Taquileños, are southern Quechua speakers.</p><br>
<p>Life on Taquile is still largely unchanged by mainland modernities. There are no cars on the island and no hotels and a few small stores sell basic goods. Most families use candles or flashlights powered by batteries or hand-cranks. Small solar panels have recently been installed on some homes. On clear nights, Taquile is a perfect place for star gazing and you furthermore experience much lightning in the horizon due to electric activity in the area.</p><br>
<p>Culture is very much alive on Taquile, which can be seen in the traditional clothes everyone wears. Taquile is especially known for its handicraft tradition which is regarded as among the highest quality handicrafts not only in Peru but in the world. "Taquile and Its Textile Art" were honored by being proclaimed "Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity" by UNESCO. Knitting is exclusively performed by males, starting at age eight. The women exclusively make yarn and weave.</p><br>
<p>Taquileans are also known for having created an innovative, community-controlled tourism model, offering home stays, transportation, and restaurants to tourists. Ever since tourism started coming to Taquile in the seventies the taquleans have slowly lost control over the mass day-tourism operated by non-Taquileans. The Taquileans have thus developed alternative tourism models, including lodging for groups, cultural activities and local guides, who have recently completed a 2-year training program. Furthermore, the local Travel Agency Munay Taquile has been established to regain control over tourism.</p><br>
<p>The people in Taquile run their society based on community collectivism and on the Inca moral code ama sua, ama llulla, ama qhilla, (do not steal, do not lie, do not be lazy). The island is divided into six sectors or suyus for crop rotation purposes. The economy is based on fishing, terraced farming horticulture based on potato cultivation, and tourist-generated income from the approximately 40,000 tourists who visit each year.</p><br>
<h3>Isla del Sol</h3><br>
<p>Situated on the Bolivian side of the lake with regular boat links to the Bolivian town of Copacabana, Isla del Sol ("Island of the sun") is one of the largest islands of the lake. Geographically, the terrain is harsh; it is a rocky, hilly island. There are no motor vehicles or paved roads on the island. The main economic activity of the approximately 800 families on the island is farming, with fishing and tourism augmenting the subsistence economy.</p><br>
<p>There are over 180 ruins on the island. Most of these date to the Inca period circa the 15th century AD. Many hills on the island contain agricultural terraces, which adapt steep and rocky terrain to agriculture. Among the ruins on the island are the Sacred Rock, a labyrinth-like building called Chicana, Kasa Pata, and Pilco Kaima. In the religion of the Incas, it was believed that the sun god was born here.</p><br>
<p>During 1987-92 Johan Reinhard directed underwater archaeological investigations off of the Island of the Sun, recovering Inca and Tiahuanaco offerings. These artifacts are currently on display in the site museum of the village of Challapampa.</p><br>
<h3>Isla de la Luna</h3><br>
<p>Isla de la Luna is situated east from the bigger Isla del Sol. Both islands belong to the La Paz Department of Bolivia. According to legends that refer to Inca mythology Isla de la Luna (Spanish for "island of the moon") is where Viracocha commanded the rising of the moon. Ruins of a supposed Inca nunnery (Mamakuna) occupy the oriental shore.</p><br>
<p>Archaeological excavations indicate that the Tiwanaku peoples (ca. AD 650-1000) built a major temple on the Island of the Moon. Pottery vessels of local dignitaries dating from this period have been excavated on islands in Lake Titicaca. Two of them were found in the nineteenth century and are now in the British Museum in London. The structures seen on the island today were built by the Inca (ca. 1450–1532) directly over the earlier Tiwanaku ones.</p><br>
<h3>Suriki</h3><br>
<p>Suriki lies in the Bolivian part of lake Titicaca (in the southeastern part also known as lake Wiñaymarka).</p><br>
<p>Suriki is thought to be the last place where the art of reed boat construction survives, at least as late as 1998. Craftsmen from Suriqui helped Thor Heyerdahl in the construction of several of his projects, such as the reed boats Ra II and Tigris, and a balloon gondola.</p><br>
<h2>Transport</h2><br>
<p>The dual gauge car float Manco Capac links PeruRails line at Puno with the Bolivian railways line at Guaqui.</p><br>
<h3>History</h3><br>
<p>The lake has had a number of steamships, each of which was built in the United Kingdom in "knock down" form with bolts and nuts, disassembled into many hundreds of pieces, transported to the lake, and then riveted together and launched.</p><br>
<p>In 1862 Thames Ironworks on the River Thames built the iron-hulled sister ships SS Yavari and SS Yapura under contract to the James Watt Foundry of Birmingham. The ships were designed as combined cargo, passenger and gunboats for the Peruvian Navy. After several years&#39; delay in delivery from the Pacific coast to the lake, Yavari was launched in 1870 and Yapura in 1873. Yavari was 100 ft long but in 1914 her hull was lengthened for extra cargo capacity and she was re-engined as a motor vessel. During the last days of the War of the Pacific Chile was sending a warship on railroad to Titicaca Lake in order to disrupt trade.</p><br>
<p>In 1892 William Denny and Brothers at Dumbarton on the River Clyde in Scotland built. She was 170 ft long and was launched on the lake in 1893.</p><br>
<p>In 1905 Earles Shipbuilding at Kingston upon Hull on the Humber built. By now a railway served the lake so the ship was delivered in kit form by rail. At 220 ft long and 1,809 tons Inca was the lakes largest ship thus far. In the 1920s Earle&#39;s supplied a new bottom for the ship, which also was delivered in kit form.</p><br>
<p>Trade continued to grow, so in 1930 Earle&#39;s built. Her parts were landed at the Pacific Ocean port of Mollendo and brought by rail to the lake port of Puno. At 260 ft long and 2,200 tons she was considerably larger than the Inca, so first a new slipway had to be built to build her. She was launched in November 1931.</p><br>
<p>In 1975 Yavari and Yapura were returned to the Peruvian Navy, who converted Yapura into a hospital ship and renamed her BAP Puno. The Navy discarded Yavari but in 1987 charitable interests bought her and started restoring her. She is now moored at Puno Bay and provides static tourist accommodation while her restoration continues. Coya was beached in 1984 but restored as a floating restaurant in 2001. Inca survived until 1994 when she was broken up. Ollanta is no longer in scheduled service but PeruRail has been leasing her for tourist charter operations.</p><br>
<p>The Auckland Islands  are an archipelago of New Zealand, lying 465 km south of the South Island. It includes Auckland Island, Adams Island, Enderby Island, Disappointment Island, Ewing Island, Rose Island, Dundas Island and Green Island, with a combined area of 625 km&sup2;. The islands have no permanent human inhabitants.</p><br>
<p>Ecologically, the Auckland Islands form part of the Antipodes Subantarctic Islands tundra ecoregion. Along with other New Zealand Sub-Antarctic Islands, they were designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1998.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The Auckland Islands lie 360 km south of Stewart Island, and 465 km from the South Island port of Bluff, between the latitudes 50° 30 and 50° 55 S and longitudes 165° 50 and 166° 20 E.</p><br>
<p>They include Auckland Island, Adams Island, Enderby Island, Disappointment Island, Ewing Island, Rose Island, Dundas Island and Green Island, with a combined area of 625 km&sup2;. The islands are close to each other, separated by narrow channels, and the coastline is rugged, with numerous deep inlets.</p><br>
<p>Auckland Island, the main island, has an approximate land area of 510 km&sup2, and a length of 42 km. It is notable for its steep cliffs and rugged terrain, which rises to over 600 m. Prominent peaks include Cavern Peak (659 m), Mount Raynal (635 m), Mount D&#39;Urville (630 m), Mount Easton (610 m), and the Tower of Babel (550 m). The southern end of the island broadens to a width of 26 km.</p><br>
<p>Here, the narrow channel of Carnley Harbour (the Adams Straits on some maps) separates the main island from the roughly triangular Adams Island (area approximately 100 km&sup2;), which is even more mountainous, reaching a height of 705 m at Mount Dick. The channel is the remains of the crater of an extinct volcano, and Adams Island and the southern part of the main island form the crater rim. The main island features many sharply incised inlets, notably Port Ross at the northern end.</p><br>
<p>The group includes numerous other smaller islands, notably Disappointment Island (10 km northwest of the main island) and Enderby Island (1 km off the northern tip of the main island), each covering less than 5 km&sup2;.</p><br>
<p>Most of the islands have a volcanic origin, with the archipelago dominated by two 12 million year old Miocene volcanoes, subsequently eroded and dissected. These rest on older volcanic rocks 15-25 million years old with some older granites and fossil-bearing sedimentary rocks from around 100 million years ago.</p><br>
<h3>Climate</h3><br>
<p>The archipelago features a subpolar oceanic climate (Cfc according to the Köppen climate classification system). The Auckland Islands have a fairly constant cool & mild weather year-round, with neither winter being excessively cold nor summer excessively hot.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Discovery and early exploitation</h3><br>
<p>Evidence exists that Polynesian voyagers first discovered the Auckland Islands. Traces of Polynesian settlement, possibly dating to the 13th century, have been found by archaeologists on Enderby Island. This is the most southerly settlement by Polynesians yet known.</p><br>
<p>A whaling vessel, Ocean, discovered the islands in 1806, finding them uninhabited.</p><br>
<p>Captain Abraham Bristow named them "Lord Aucklands" on 18 August 1806 in honour of his fathers friend William Eden, 1st Baron Auckland. Bristow worked for the businessman Samuel Enderby, the namesake of Enderby Island. The following year Bristow returned on the Sarah in order to claim the archipelago for Britain. The explorers Dumont D&#39;Urville in 1839, and James Clark Ross visited in 1839 and in 1840 respectively.</p><br>
<p>Whalers and sealers set up temporary bases, the islands becoming one of the principal sealing stations in the Pacific in the years immediately after their discovery. By 1812 so many seals had been killed that the islands lost their commercial importance and sealers redirected their efforts towards Campbell and Macquarie Islands. Visits to the islands declined, although recovering seal populations allowed a modest revival in sealing in the mid-1820s.</p><br>
<h3>Settlement</h3><br>
<p>uninhabited, the islands saw unsuccessful settlements in the mid-19th century. In 1842 a small party of Māori and their Moriori slaves from the Chatham Islands migrated to the archipelago, surviving for some 20 years on sealing and flax growing. Samuel Enderby&#39;s grandson, Charles Enderby, proposed a community based on agriculture and whaling in 1846. This settlement, established at Port Ross in 1849 and named Hardwicke, lasted only two and a half years.</p><br>
<p>The Auckland Islands were part of the Colony of New Zealand under the Letters Patent of April 1842 which fixed the southern boundary of New Zealand at 53° south, but they were then excluded by the Act of 1846 which defined the southern boundary at 47° 10&#39; south; however they were again included by the New Zealand Boundaries Act of 1863, an act of the Imperial Parliament at Westminster which extended the boundaries of the colony once more.</p><br>
<h3>Shipwrecks</h3><br>
<p>The rocky coasts of the islands have proved disastrous for several ships. The Grafton, captained by Thomas Musgrave, was wrecked in Carnley Harbour in 1864. Madelene Ferguson Allen&#39;s narrative about her great-grandfather, Robert Holding, and the wreck of the Scottish sailing ship the Invercauld, wrecked in the Auckland Islands a few months later in 1864, counterpoints the Grafton story. François Édouard Raynal wrote also Les Naufragés, ou Vingt mois sur un récif des îles Auckland.</p><br>
<p>In 1866 one of New Zealand&#39;s most famous shipwrecks, that of the General Grant, occurred on the western coast. Fifteen survivors waited for rescue on Auckland Island for eighteen months. Several attempts have failed to salvage its cargo, allegedly including bullion.</p><br>
<p>Because of the probability of wrecks around the islands, calls arose for the establishment of emergency depots for castaways in 1868. The New Zealand authorities established and maintained three such depots, at Port Ross, Norman Inlet and Carnley Harbour from 1887. They also cached additional supplies, including boats (to help reach the depots) and 40 finger-posts (which had smaller amounts of supplies), around the islands. When a further maritime tragedy occurred in 1907, with the loss of the Dundonald and 12 crew off Disappointment Island, the shipwreck&#39;s fifteen survivors lived off the supplies in the Auckland Island depot.</p><br>
<h3>Scientific research and reserve</h3><br>
<p>The 1907 Sub-Antarctic Islands Scientific Expedition spent ten days on the islands conducting a magnetic survey and taking botanical, zoological and geological specimens.</p><br>
<p>From 1941 to 1945 the islands hosted a New Zealand meteorological station as part of a coastwatching programme staffed by scientist volunteers and known for security reasons as the "Cape Expedition". The staff included Robert Falla, later an eminent New Zealand scientist. the islands have no inhabitants, although scientists visit regularly and the authorities allow limited tourism on Enderby Island and Auckland Island.</p><br>
<p>BirdLife International (2003) "Auckland Islands" Cambridge, UK: BirdLife International. Available: (accessed 13 July 2007)</p><br>
<p>New reserves including Auckland Islands were established in 2014, which are about 15 times larger than the reserve on Stewart Island, making Subantarctic islands the largest natural sanctuary in the nation.</p><br>
<h2>Ecology</h2><br>
<h3>Plants</h3><br>
<p>The botany of the islands was first described in the Flora of Lord Auckland and Campbell&#39;s Islands, a product of the Ross expedition of 1839–43, written by Joseph Dalton Hooker and published by Reeve Brothers in London between 1843 and 1845.</p><br>
<p>The vegetation of the islands sub-divides into distinct altitudinal zones. Inland from the salt-spray zone, the fringes of the islands predominantly feature forests of southern rata Metrosideros umbellata, and in places the subantarctic tree daisy (Olearia lyallii), probably introduced by sealers.</p><br>
<p>Above this exists a subalpine shrub zone dominated by Dracophyllum, Coprosma and Myrsine (with some rata). At higher elevations tussock grass and megaherb communities dominate the flora.</p><br>
<h3>Invertebrates</h3><br>
<p>The islands host the largest communities of subantarctic invertebrates, with 24 species of spider, 11 species of springtail and over 200 insects. These include 57 species of beetle, 110 flies and 39 moths. The islands also boast an endemic genus and species of weta, Dendroplectron cryptacanthus.</p><br>
<h3>Fresh and saltwater fauna</h3><br>
<p>The freshwater environments of the islands host a freshwater fish, the koaro or climbing galaxias, which lives in saltwater as a juvenile but which returns to the rivers as an adult. The islands have 19 species of endemic freshwater invertebrates, including one mollusc, one crustacean, a mayfly, 12 flies and two caddis flies. Auckland Islands cockle are endemic to the islands.</p><br>
<h3>Marine mammals</h3><br>
<p>Only two native mammals exist: two species of seal which haul out on the islands, the New Zealand fur seal and the threatened New Zealand sea lion. Southern elephant seals started to re-colonize on the islands, too.</p><br>
<p>A well-recovering population in excess of 2,000 southern right whales is found off the islands, and Port Ross area is considered to be the most important and well-established congregating ground for whales in New Zealand waters. Its importance exceeds the Campbell Island ground.</p><br>
<h3>Birds</h3><br>
<p>The islands hold important seabird breeding colonies, among them albatrosses, penguins and several small petrels, with a million pairs of sooty shearwater. Landbirds include red-fronted and yellow-crowned parakeet, New Zealand falcon, tui, bellbirds, pipits and an endemic subspecies of tomtit.</p><br>
<p>The whole Auckland Island group has been identified as an Important Bird Area (IBA) by BirdLife International because of its significance as a breeding site for several species of seabirds as well as the endemic Auckland shag, Auckland teal, Auckland rail, and Auckland snipe. The seabirds include southern rockhopper and yellow-eyed penguins; Antipodean, southern royal, light-mantled and white-capped albatrosses; and white-chinned petrel.</p><br>
<h3>Ecological history</h3><br>
<p>Several introduced species have come to the islands; goats, other useful animals and seed were brought to the islands by Captains Musgrave and Norman 1865, returning to search for castaways; ecologists eliminated or allowed to go extinct cattle, sheep, goats, dogs, possums and rabbits in the 1990s, but feral cats, pigs and mice remain on Auckland Island. The last rabbits on Enderby Island were removed in 1993 through the application of poison, also eradicating mice there.</p><br>
<p>Curiously, rats have never managed to colonise the islands, in spite of numerous visits and shipwrecks and their ubiquity on other islands. Introduced species affected the native vegetation and bird life, and caused the extinction of the New Zealand merganser, a duck formerly widespread in southern New Zealand, and ultimately confined to the islands.</p><br>
<h2>List of endemic species</h2><br>
<p>Auckland Islands cockle</p><br>
<p>Auckland Island weta</p><br>
<p>Auckland Islands shore plover (extinct)</p><br>
<p>Auckland rail</p><br>
<p>Auckland teal</p><br>
<p>Auckland snipe</p><br>
<p>Gentianella concinna</p><br>
<p>Manila Bay is a natural harbour which serves the Port of Manila , in the Philippines. Strategically located around the capital city of the Philippines, Manila Bay facilitated commerce and trade between the Philippines and its neighbouring countries, becoming the gateway for socio-economic development even prior to Spanish occupation. With an area of 1,994 km&sup2, and a coastline of 190 km, Manila Bay is situated in the western part of Luzon and is bounded by Cavite and Metro Manila on the east, Bulacan and Pampanga on the north, and Bataan on the west and northwest. Manila Bay drains approximately 17,000 km&sup2; of watershed area, with the Pampanga River contributing about 49% of the freshwater influx. With an average depth of 17 m, it is estimated to have a total volume of 28.9 billion cubic metres . Entrance to the bay is 19 km wide and expands to a width of 48 km. However, width of the bay varies from 22 km at its mouth and expanding to 60 km at its widest point.</p><br>
<p>The islands of Corregidor and Caballo divides the entrance into two channels, about 2 mi towards the North and 6.5 mi wide on the South side. Mariveles, in the province of Bataan, is an anchorage just inside the northern entrance and Sangley Point is the former location of Cavite Naval Base. On either side of the bay are volcanic peaks topped with tropical foliage: 40 km to the north is the Bataan Peninsula and to the south is the province of Cavite.</p><br>
<p>Across the entrance to Manila Bay are several islands, the largest of which is Corregidor, located 3 kilometres from Bataan and, along with the island of Caballo, separates the mouth of the bay into the North and South Channels. In the south channel is El Fraile Island and outside the entrance, and to the south, is Carabao Island. El Fraile, a rocky island some 4 acre in area, supports the massive concrete and steel ruins of Fort Drum, an island fortress constructed by the United States Army to defend the southern entrance of the bay. To the immediate north and south are additional harbors, upon which both local and international ports are situated. Large number of ships at the North and South harbors facilitate maritime activities in the bay. Being smaller of the two harbors, the North Harbor is used for inter-island shipping while the South Harbor is used for large ocean-going vessels.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Manila Bay was connected to Laguna de Bay (pronounced "bai") approximately 3,000 years ago. Recurring episodic</p><br>
<p>uplifts along the West Marikina Valley Fault caused the two to break up. Interaction between Manila Bay and Laguna de Bay today occurs only through the Pasig River.</p><br>
<p>The bay was the setting for the Battle of Manila Bay in 1898, in which American troops led by Commodore George Dewey seized the area. This battle showcased the United States&#39; naval strength. All major Spanish ships were destroyed and captured.de Castro, J.A.I. (2010). "Cleaning Up Manila Bay: Mandamus as a Tool for Environmental Protection". Ecology Law Quarterly. (37) pp</p><br>
<p>797-804 With its proud historic past and abundant marine life,MMDA-Metro Manila Development Authority</p><br>
<p>versus Concerned Residents of Manila Bay. (2008) in de Castro, J.A.I. "Cleaning Up Manila Bay: Mandamus as a Tool for Environmental Protection." G.R. Nos. 171947-48, 574 SCRA 661, 665 Philippines. Manila Bay became the ocean portal and Filipino epicenter for government, economy and industry. During the Russo-Japanese War at the close of the Battle of Tsushima in 1905, three surviving Russian protected cruisers (the Aurora, Zhemchug, and Oleg) managed to make port in then-United States-controlled Manila for repairs. However, because the US was neutral in this conflict, the trio of warships and their crews remained interned by the USA until the war officially came to an end in September 1905. During the World War II, Corregidor Island was annexed by the Japanese forces based in Manila Bay. Much earlier, various other battles were fought from this naval base, including the Battles of La Naval de Manila in 1646, which finally ended Dutch attempts to seize the Philippines. The bay remains important for commerce and industry, including fishing, although rapid urban growth and industrialization are contributing to a decline in water quality and deteriorating marine habitats. It also serves a focus for recreation for Metro Manila and is a popular destination for walks and for viewing the sunset. Much of the land fronting the bay along Metro Manila is reclaimed land which now includes important sites such as the Philippine Senate and the Mall of Asia.</p><br>
<p>On 27 September 2011, the sea walls of Manila Bay were destroyed by the storm surge caused by Typhoon Pedring. Even the United States Embassy, Museo Pambata and Sofitel Philippine Plaza were submerged by the flooding. It was estimated that the damage would cost P30 million to repair. On April 2012, the sea walls were once again opened to the public, having been redesigned to withstand a strong storm surge.</p><br>
<h2>Ecosystem</h2><br>
<p>Coastal and marine habitats in the area include upland forests, mangrove, mudflats, sandy beaches, sea grass and coral reefs.</p><br>
<h3>Biodiversity</h3><br>
<p>A total of 19,139 birds belonging to 330 families and 99 species were observed at various monitoring sites along the bay area. The endangered Chinese Egret (Egretta eulophotes) and Black-winged cuckoo-shrike were sighted in the area. A large</p><br>
<p>number of migratory birds use the intertidal mudflats, fishponds and saltpans in winter and during the migration seasons.</p><br>
<p>Howes, J.R. (1987). Rapid Assessment of Coastal Wetlands in the Philippines. Kuala Lumpur: Asian Wetland Bureau.</p><br>
<p>Large number of commercial fish species such as snappers, sea catfish and mackerelsMartinez-Goss, M.L. (1999).</p><br>
<p>Estimation of fish biomas in Laguna de Bay based on primary productivity- A special study of the National Statistical Coordination Board. were once abundant in these waters. Their decline ushered in the appearance of squid, shrimp, and small pelagic species such as herrings and anchovies.</p><br>
<h3>Mangroves</h3><br>
<p>The mangrove ecosystem around Manila Bay has both ecological and socioeconomic uses with its association of unique plant and animal species.</p><br>
<p>Of the original 54,000 hectares of mangroves existing at the turn of the 20th century, only 794 hectares are remaining as recorded in 1995. A few of the mangrove swamps remaining in Pampanga Bay are of considerable value for research and conservation education. As natural habitats, mangroves considerably help in acting as a protective buffer against cyclones and storms.</p><br>
<p>Predominant in the bay area are Avicennia marina (gray or white mangrove) together with 15 species of mangroves belonging to 9 families that grow there. In the Bataan area, species of mangrove swamps that are found thriving include:</p><br>
<p>Rhizophora apiculata (bakhaw lalaki in Filipino)</p><br>
<p>Rhyzophora mucronata (no common name found)</p><br>
<p>Avicennia marina (gray or white mangrove)</p><br>
<p>Nypa fruticans (nipa palm)</p><br>
<p>Sonneratia alba (no common name)</p><br>
<p>Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea (nilad in Filipino)</p><br>
<p>Sonneratia acida (pagatpat in Filipino)</p><br>
<p>Acanthus ilicifolius (holly-leaved acanthus)</p><br>
<p>Excoecaria agallocha (milky mangrove)</p><br>
<p>Plantations of Cocos nucifera (coconut palm) co-exists with the mangroves found in these areas.</p><br>
<h3>Wetlands</h3><br>
<p>Covering about 4,600 hectares, wetlands around Manila Bay are useful in:Alonzo-Pasicolan, S.</p><br>
<p>(1987). Status of Wetlands in Luzon. Paper presented at the Conference on Wetland and Waterfowl Conservation in Asia, Malacca, Malaysia, 23-</p><br>
<p>28 February 1987. IWRB & Interwater.</p><br>
<p>providing food and habitat for fish, shorebirds and wildlife</p><br>
<p>maintaining and improving water quality of rivers, lakes and estuaries,</p><br>
<p>acting as reservoir for watersheds, and</p><br>
<p>protecting adjacent and downstream properties of the area from potential flood damage</p><br>
<p>Mudflats, sand flats, swamps, beaches and rocky shores form part of the wetlands in Manila Bay. Found mostly along the coast of Bataan and</p><br>
<p>Pampanga, mudflats are suitable habitats for shellfish.</p><br>
<h3>Coral Reefs</h3><br>
<p>Contributing to the balanced functioning of the ecosystemInternational Centre for Living Aquatic Resources Management -</p><br>
<p>ICLARM (1996). Resource and Ecological Assessment of Manila Bay Philippines: Results of Monitoring Activities (1995-1996). around Manila Bay, coral reefs in the area provide sanctuary for fishes. Consequently, its decline through the years has directly affected the fish yield.</p><br>
<h3>Seagrass Beds</h3><br>
<p>As a diverse ecosystem, seagrass beds provide shelter for fishes and other marine life forms. Like the coral reefs, most of the seagrass beds in Manila Bay are found near its mouth, most notably in the areas of Malolos, Orion, Mariveles, and Corregidor Island.</p><br>
<h3>Upland forests</h3><br>
<p>Within the watershed of Manila Bay upland forests abound which are sources of food, timber, fuel wood and other products, as well as habitats for wildlife. These forests provide protection from soil erosion and help maintain the water levels and water quality in rivers and streams. Mount Makiling, Angat Dam watershed, La Mesa Dam watershed, Mounts Palay-Palay / Mataas na Gulod Protected Landscape, Mount Arayat and other portions of national parks located in Bataan, Bulacan, Rizal and Tarlac form part of these upland forest ecosystem.</p><br>
<h2>Key developments</h2><br>
<h3>Land reclamation</h3><br>
<p>Largely intended for use in human settlement and industrial development, land reclamation projects contributed to the reduction of mangroves around the area, as well as significant reduction in Metro Manila&#39;s shoreline.</p><br>
<h3>Land conversion</h3><br>
<p>Conversion of mangrove and mudflat areas into fishponds have impacted the physical features of the bay whereby what used to be irregular shoreline in 1944 has become more linear by 1977. Shoreline retreat continued as man-made structures such as fish pens occupied the coastal areas, with progradation dominant from 1977 to 1991. Most area of the bay, except those near the ports, are largely used as a major fishing ground, with fisheries and aquaculture as the dominant source of livelihood for the inhabitants in the coastal areas.</p><br>
<p>From 1990, approximately 1,200 hectares of mangroves were cleared, with the land converted for aquaculture or used as salt beds.PEMSEA. (2004) Manila Bay: Refined Risk Assessment. PEMSEA Technical Information Report No. 2004/01. Global Environment Facility / United Nations Development Programme / International Maritime Organization Regional Programme on Building Partnerships in Environmental Management for the Seas of East Asia (PEMSEA). Quezon City, Philippines. In 1993 much of the fisheries resources steadily declined due to over-fishing and over-harvesting.</p><br>
<h3>Waterfront development</h3><br>
<p>With then Mayor Lito Atienza&#39;s program Buhayin ang Maynila (Revitalize Manila) in 2002, the local government made the initiative of enhancing the seaside promenade of Manila through urban renewal, upkeep and improvements. What later became known as Baywalk, the facelift of the 2 km strip of central public space aimed at creating a venue for social interaction and recreation.</p><br>
<p>With reference to its colonial history, which uses the Baywalk for exercise, fishing or socialization. The mix of land utilization and social activity provides public access to the edge of the sea, and counters vagrancy and mendicancy. Reviving Manila&#39;s waterfront through the Baywalk injected vibrance and historic appreciation into the public space with the statues of Arsenio Lacson, Ninoy Aquino and Evelio Javier placed in key areas.</p><br>
<p>At the onset, lack of funds hampered the revival of the Baywalk. Eventually, planning for the Baywalk means understanding and regulating diversity of functions with appropriate policy.</p><br>
<h3>Legislation</h3><br>
<p>Manila Bay and its corresponding resources are considered critical recipients of environmental protection. As indicated in the 1987 Constitution (Article II, Section 16) there exists legal basis for environmental protection with the provision that:</p><br>
<p>“the State shall protect and advance the right of the people to a balanced and healthful ecology in accord with the rhythm and harmony of nature.”</p><br>
<p>The Manila Bay Declaration 2001 recognized Manila Bay as a source of food, employment and income for the people as well as the gateway for tourism and recreation.</p><br>
<p>Stockholm Convention on persistent organic pollutants was adopted in 2001 and enforced in 2004.</p><br>
<h2>Water quality</h2><br>
<p>Successive changes in and around Manila Bay are largely due to the intertwining impacts of continued industrialization, unrelenting increase in population, and the incessant human activities catering to livelihood and habitation. These factors are directly degrading the overall environment of Manila Bay and these impacts are manifested in the continued deterioration of the water quality within the bay. Several industries operate along the bay in the highly urbanized Metro Manila area, while there are shipyard facilities in Cavite andProgramme on Building Partnerships in Environmental Management for the Seas of East Asia-PEMSEA. (2001). Manila Bay:</p><br>
<p>Initial risk assessment. PEMSEA Technical Information Report No. 2001/01, 112 p. Global Environment Facility/United Nations Development Programme/International Maritime Organization Regional PEMSEA, Quezon City, Philippines.Bajet, C.M. (2003).</p><br>
<p>Ecotoxicology of pesticides in Philippine aquatic ecosystems. In: Taylor MD, Klaine SJ, Carvalho FP, Barcelo´ D, Everaarts J, editors. Pesticide residues in coastal tropical ecosystems. Distribution, fate and effects. London: Taylor & Francis/CRC Press. pp 271–310 in Bataan, several more heavy industries, refineries and a power plant are present. At the shipping ports and ferry terminals, an average of 30,000 ships arrive and depart annually to transport passengers, manufactured goods and raw materials. have contributed to the severe decline in the quality of water and sediments in the bay as well as impacted on the existing marine habitats.</p><br>
<h3>Salinity</h3><br>
<p>According to the study by Jacinto Manila bay has an average surface salinity of 32.6 psu (practical salinity unit). Due to the river influx, the areas near the coasts have low salinity especially in the vicinity of the mouth of the Pasig River in the eastern part of the bay. The bay’s salinity is also affected by strong seasonal variations.</p><br>
<h3>Effects of soil erosion</h3><br>
<p>As indicated by the exposed roots of the coconut trees, continuing soil erosion has been a major factor in the changing shoreline of Manila bay. Apart from soil erosion, other environmental processes such as siltation and sea level rise have also contributed to changing the bay’s coastline. In some parts of the bay, however, erosion are prevented by seawalls and breakers particularly in areas where land has been reclaimed.</p><br>
<h3>Pollution</h3><br>
<p>With the presence of ports, sea-based sources of pollution around the bay are from ships and motorized boats. Twelve oil spills were recorded in 1995, but it was in 1999 where the highest total volume of oil spill occurred in the Manila South Harbor and Limay, Bataan. Increased presence of oil and grease in the waters are attributed to maritime activities at the harbors, together with the presence of oil terminals and the discharges from industries. These factors directly impacted the health of Manila Bay&#39;s waters.</p><br>
<p>Aside from oil spills, trace metals such as copper, cadmium and zinc at the surface of the water were found at the bay coming from sea-based and land-based (e.g., domestic sewage, industrial effluents, runoff, combustion emissions, and mining operations) sources.</p><br>
<p>In 1996, concentrations of 16 commonly used pesticides in surface sediment</p><br>
<p>Pesticide residues from rice paddy water draining into irrigation canals, which later on empty into river systems and eventually flowing into the surrounding lakes reaches the waters of Manila Bay. Compounds from these pesticide residues find themselves in food items with metamidophos, endosulfan, chlorpyrifos and diazinon among the common contaminants. While chronic toxic effects on inhabitants of the bay are not found, impairment of marine biota were more evident.</p><br>
<p>In 1997, polychlorinated biphenyl congeners (PCBs), compounds common in transformers, hydraulic fluids, paint additives and pesticides were determined in sediments and oysters sampled from Manila Bay. The increase in the nutrient concentration and presence of nitrate, ammonia and phosphate in the bay,from the 80s, through to the 90s and beyond are not only attributed to agricultural runoff and river discharges but also on fertilizers from fishponds.</p><br>
<h2>Future</h2><br>
<h3>Rehabilitation</h3><br>
<p>Despite the issues generally associated with developing countries, such as poverty, over-population and food security, there is surprisingly a growing concern for the environmental vitality of Manila Bay. Rehabilitation, which in this case refers to an attempt to improve an aquatic system and prevent further damage to the natural ecosystems, is a responsibility assumed both by government and non-government organizations. The Supreme Court of the Philippines for example had issued the Metro Manila Development Authority an order to "demolish illegal structures and dwellings along riverbanks and waterways connected to Manila Bay by 2015" in March, 2011 as an attempt to decrease mass occurrences of water pollution. Projects involving the wider communities include organization of the "Manila Bay Clean Up Run," which essentially supports the Philippine Environment Agencies with their objectives to raise funding and awareness towards the rehabilitation of Manila Bay’s natural environments.</p><br>
<h3>Sea level rise</h3><br>
<p>Global warming, which in its simplest context refers to an increase in the earth’s atmospheric temperature and the subsequent result of sea level rise, poses a great threat in the conservation of Manila Bay and its bordering cities. With recent studies predicting "the sea level could rise between.75 to 1.9 metres by 2100" and considering the vast landscape of development, growing industries and overly-dense populations, the exponential assets exposed to flood-prone zones evidently become a dire</p><br>
<p>issue. The Philippine Country Study to Address Climate Change has depicted a proactive approach to this environmental issue through</p><br>
<p>governance of a detailed impact assessment covering the following elements:Perez,R.T., Feir, R.B., Carandang, E. and</p><br>
<p>Gonzalez, E.B. (1996). Potential Impacts of Sea Level Rise on the Coastal Resrouces of Manila Bay: A Preliminary Vulnerability Assessment. Water, Air and Soil Pollution, 92, pp137-147</p><br>
<p>Physical Environment</p><br>
<p>Tidal regimes including low and high levels of water circulation</p><br>
<p>Outlining of seasons to depict periods of high and low rainfall</p><br>
<p>Habitat and Species</p><br>
<p>Identification of coral species, mangrove forests, ecosystems within the coastlines, as well as nearby agricultural land</p><br>
<p>Vulnerability Analysis</p><br>
<p>Vulnerability maps were drawn to outline townscape in accelerated sea level timelines. Using such resources pinpoints the populated areas and natural habitats most likely to be inundated as a result of global warming</p><br>
<h3>Challenges</h3><br>
<p>Due to the low profile of environmentalism and its objectives within the nation of the Philippines, official awareness of global warming and the investment to applicable research is in itself triumphant. Further steps to meet the challenge of rehabilitation and sea level rise within Manila Bay may include additional research to gain insight to the complex nature of existent ecosystems; investment to coastal protection means such as the implementation of concrete walls; laws and policies dedicated to the protection of habitats and restriction or zoning of developments; as well as public educational programs to increase the intensity of conservation support. Long-term goals for Manila Bay would ideally include the decrease or termination of nearby highly polluting enterprises, implementation effective standards for waste-water discharge and an overall improved water quality.</p><br>
<p>The Zambales Mountains is a mountain range on western Luzon island in the Philippines. The mountains separate Luzon&#39;s central plain from the South China Sea. Its most prominent section is known as the Cabusilan Mountain Range composed of Mt. Pinatubo, Mount Negron and Mount Cuadrado, which are believed to be remnants of the ancestral Pinatubo peak. The highest elevation in the Zambales Mountains is Mount Tapulao, also known as High Peak, in Zambales province which rises to 2,037 m.</p><br>
<h2>Extent</h2><br>
<p>The Zambales Mountains has an area of 300 km&sup2; extending North to South from the mountains of western Pangasinan province, the whole length of Zambales, to tip of the Bataan Peninsula in the south enclosing Manila Bay. The mountain range also encompasses the mountains in the municipalities of Bamban, Capas, San Jose, San Clemente, Mayantoc, Santa Ignacia, Camiling in the province of Tarlac. In Pampanga, it includes the mountains in Floridablanca, Porac, Angeles City and Mabalacat.</p><br>
<h2>Volcanoes</h2><br>
<p>Although the mountains are volcanic in origin, Mount Pinatubo is the only active volcano in the mountain range. Its eruption on June 15, 1991 was the second most powerful volcanic eruption of the 20th century after the 1912 eruption of Novarupta in Alaska. The volcanic eruption, which was complicated by the arrival of typhoon Yunya, covered the region with thick volcanic ash and lahar including the USA military base at Clark Field near Angeles City, Pampanga.</p><br>
<h2>Protected areas</h2><br>
<p>Bataan National Park</p><br>
<p>Manleluag Spring Protected Landscape</p><br>
<p>Roosevelt Protected Landscape</p><br>
<p>Caballo Island  is a bluff, rocky island located at the entrance to Manila Bay in the Philippines. It is about 1.2 km long with the highest elevation at 381 feet high. Caballo, along with the larger Corregidor , divides the entrance to the bay into two broad and deep channels, known as the North and South Channel.</p><br>
<p>The whole island was formerly occupied by Fort Hughes, a USA defense fortification before World War II. It was heavily bombed during the war.</p><br>
<h2>Geological history</h2><br>
<p>Caballo and Corregidor Islands are believed to be the rims of the Corregidor Caldera. The gap between the two islands is only about 1/4 mile with a depth of 7 fathoms and is never used for large vessel navigation.</p><br>
<h2>Caballo today</h2><br>
<p>The island is currently occupied by the Philippine Navy and is off limits to civilians. Remains of the old fortifications, batteries and structures are left rusting in the open after it was abandoned after World War II.</p><br>
<p>In November 2014, Filipino peacekeepers from Liberia who were quarantined on the island for 21 days due to concerns about Ebola were cleared to return to the mainland.</p><br>
<p>Corregidor Island, locally called Isla ng Corregidor, is an island located at the entrance of Manila Bay in southwestern part of Luzon Island in the Philippines. Due to this location, Corregidor has historically been fortified with coastal artillery to defend the entrance of Manila Bay and Manila from attacks by enemy warships. Located 48 km inland, Manila has been the largest city and the most important seaport in the Philippines for centuries, from the colonial rule of Spain, Japan and the United States, to the establishment of the Philippines in 1946.</p><br>
<p>Corregidor (Fort Mills) is the largest of the islands that formed the harbor defenses of Manila Bay together with El Fraile Island (Fort Drum), Caballo Island (Fort Hughes) and Carabao Island (Fort Frank), which were all fortified during the American liberation of the country. The island was also the site of a small military airfield, as part of the defense.</p><br>
<p>During World War II, Corregidor played an important role during the invasion and liberation of the Philippines from Japanese forces. Heavily bombarded in the latter part of the war, the ruins left on the island serve as a military memorial to American, Filipino and Japanese soldiers who served or lost their lives on the island. Corregidor is one of the important historic and tourist sites in the country.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Corregidor and the other fortified islands of Manila Bay fall under the jurisdiction of the City of Cavite, Cavite province. Corregidor, also known as "The Rock" for its rocky landscape and the heavy fortifications, along with Caballo Island, about 1.7 km south, divide the entrance of Manila Bay into the North and South Channel.</p><br>
<p>The tadpole-shaped island, with its tail running eastward, is about 6.5 km long, about 2.0 km wide at its widest with a total land area of about 900 hectare. The highest elevation is at 180 m on the Topside. The island is divided into four sections:</p><br>
<h3>Topside</h3><br>
<p>The islands biggest area, which points towards the West Philippine Sea, rises prominently to a large flat area that is called "Topside". Beneath this was the fortified communications center of the island, as well as the location for the Army headquarters, barracks for enlisted men, a branch of the Philippine Trust Co. bank, the Cine Corregidor movie theater, officers quarters, underground ordnance shops, the parade ground, an Officers&#39; Club with a 9-hole Golf Course, tennis courts, and swimming pool, and the bulk of the artillery batteries that constituted the strength of Corregidor.</p><br>
<h3>Middleside</h3><br>
<p>Middleside is a small plateau that interrupts the upward slope from Bottomside to Topside, and was the location of 2-story officers&#39; quarters, barracks for the enlisted men, a hospital, quarters for non-commissioned officers, a service club, PX, and two schoolhouses—one for the children of Filipino soldiers and the other for American children.</p><br>
<h3>Bottomside</h3><br>
<p>Bottomside is the lower part of the island and is the neck that connects the tail and head of the island. South of Bottomside was Barangay or Barrio San José (near what was Navy Beach); on the north is what was Army Dock, with its three large piers, and, east of Bottomside, is the Malinta Tunnel. The Malinta Hill separates Bottomside from the Tail End.</p><br>
<h3>Tailside</h3><br>
<p>The Tailside or Tail End is not a given name, but it is the remaining portion of the island where different memorials, shrines and the island&#39;s airstrip are located. Kindley Field was constructed in the early 1920s and named in honor of an early hero of the USA Army Air Corps. The airfield was operated then by the army, and the navy had a seaplane base. The short runway, cramped and hilly terrain had limited its use.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>Corregidor and Caballo islands are remnants of a volcanic crater, the Corregidor Caldera, which was last active about one million years ago. However, the Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS) still classifies Corregidor as a potentially active volcano.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Spanish colonial era</h3><br>
<p>The island came under Spanish sovereignty on May 19, 1570, when Miguel Lopez de Legazpi and his forces arrived in Manila Bay. Legazpi was authorized by the Spanish Crown to establish the capital of the Philippines in Manila, and convert the Muslims in Luzon and Mindanao to Christianity. Corregidor was used as a support site for the nine Spanish galleons used during the campaign.</p><br>
<p>Under Spanish rule, Corregidor served not only as a fortress of defense, a penal institution, and a station for Customs inspection, but also as a signal outpost to warn Manila of the approach of hostile ships. Corregidor comes from the Spanish word corregir, meaning "to correct." One story states that the island was called Isla del Corregidor (literally, Island of the Corrector) due to the Spanish customs system, wherein all ships entering Manila Bay were required to stop and have their documents checked and "corrected". Another version claims that the island was used a penitentiary or correctional institution by the Spanish government, and thus came to be called El Corregidor. Corregidor is also a specific position of authority within the former Spanish administrative structure, who is the head of the territorial unit known as Corregimiento. The institution of administrative districts called Corregimientos (with the chief, "El Corregidor") was in use throughout Spanish America and the Philippines. Just as an example, in the Philippines had "corregidores" in charge of Bataan and Zambales, among others. "Isla del Corregidor", the ancient name of the place, literally means "Corregidor&#39;s island".</p><br>
<p>On November 23, 1574, the Chinese pirate Limahong and his 65 vessel fleet, with 3,000 men anchored between Corregidor and Mariveles. From that site he launched two successive attacks against Manila, commanded either by Limahong himself or the Japanese Sioco. Both of them failed their purpose before a fierce battle defense led by the governor Juan de Salcedo.</p><br>
<p>In November and December 1600, the surroundings of Corregidor Island were used as an anchorage by the Dutchman Olivier van Noort. His ships Mauritius and Eendracht were engaged in piratical activities on the sailing route to and from Manila. This situation was dealt with after the naval combat of Fortune Island on December 14, 1600. As a result, Spain lost its ship San Diego but captured the Dutch sailing boat Eendracht and Oliver van Noort retreated from the Philippines.</p><br>
<p>As a consequence of these events, and also to prevent sudden attack by the Muslims from Mindanao, a watch vessel was posted at Corregidor to control the entrance to the bay. According to data from 1637, this vessel had a crew of twenty men, who were paid 540 pesos a year for this task.</p><br>
<p>Corregidor Island was taken over by the Dutch in June 1647 and from there they launched an offensive against Cavite which was repelled by the Spanish garrison, under the command of Andre Lopez de Azalduigui. However, the Dutchmen would remain in the island for seven more months as it served them well as an operations base from which to intercept Chinese merchant traffic in the vicinity of Luzon and Cebu. Finally they withdrew with little of their expectations fulfilled.</p><br>
<p>During the invasion of Manila and Cavite in October 1762 by the Royal Navy and the British Army under Admiral Cornish and General Draper, Corregidor was used as an anchorage for warships, particularly HMS Panther and the captured warship, the Spanish galleon Santisima Trinidad, during November 1762.</p><br>
<p>The arrival of the Spanish fleet, led by General Ignacio Mario de Alava, with the mission to place the Philippine Islands on alert, did not affect the fortunes of Corregidor Island. He limited his activity to the setting up of a naval station at Cavite.</p><br>
<p>On January 18, 1853, the Corregidor Island Lighthouse was first lit on the highest part of the island to mark the entrance of Manila Bay to vessels coming in from the South China Sea. The Spanish government built the Second-Order light, which is situated 639 ft above sea level and visible for 20 miles.</p><br>
<h3>Spanish–American War</h3><br>
<p>Corregidor Island was included in the Philippines defense plan prepared in 1885 by General Cerero, but no action was taken to implement it. When the USA Navys attack was thought to be imminent, a 12 cm gun, "Hontoria System", which came from the Spanish Navys cruiser Antonio de Ulloa, and two shorter ones of the same caliber from the Spanish gunboat Genaral Lezo, were installed on the rocky island El Fraile. On the south side of Corregidor, the Spanish army installed three 15 cm artillery pieces which came from the Spanish navy cruiser Velasco which was undergoing repairs.</p><br>
<p>On the midnight of April 30 to the 1st of May 1898, USA Navy Commodore George Dewey led his naval squadron, with his flag hoisted on board the armored cruiser, eastward along the southern coast of Corregidor Island, beyond the reach of Spanish batteries and with no navigational lights on.</p><br>
<p>At a distance about one mile off El Fraile, Deweys fleet changed course to the North East, steaming towards Manila. When they were discovered, the Spaniards fired from El Frailes artillery. An American response followed immediately, first by and then by, and. Since the flotilla&#39;s speed was ten knots, they were soon far away from the Spanish batteries. Dewey sailed for Cavite where he destroyed the naval forces of Admiral Montojo.</p><br>
<p>Once the Cavite shipyard was subdued by means of a Stipulated Pact, two American ships went ashore at Corregidor Island on the 3rd of May forcing the Spaniards on the island to surrender. Colonel Garces, chief of the coast batteries at the entrance of Manilas Bay, and the islands governor, First Class Naval Lieutenant, Augusto Miranda, were urged to come to terms with the Americans, and so they did. Therefore, Miranda remained on the island with only 100 soldiers and the Spanish Flag on top; Garces and officers under his command, as well as 292 men with their weapons and ammunition, were transferred to the Mariveles port. From there they were conducted along the provinces of Bataan and Pampanga until they reached Manila on 5 May. There they joined the Navy battalion which was already quartered in Sampaloc.</p><br>
<p>On 4 May, the American ships opened fire against the 100 men who, according to the pact had been left on Corregidor and demanded the garrison forces be reduced to 25 men. The Spanish governor consulted Manila authorities, and they ordered the evacuation of the island. The troops were sent to Naic, Cavite on boats while the governor was transferred to the American cruiser USS Baltimore and became a prisoner with his family. The Americans offered to liberate him but the Navy Lieutenant rejected. Shortly afterwards, he was disembarked in Balanga, Bataan. In this way, the Spanish presence on Corregidor Island, which had lasted 328 years, came to an end.</p><br>
<p>A cannon that had guarded the residence of the Spanish colonial governor on Corregidor, the Dewey Cannon, was taken as a prize of war to the United States. It was later awarded to the rural town of Three Oaks, Michigan, where it was remounted as a historical display.</p><br>
<h3>American colonial period</h3><br>
<p>In 1902, the island was organized as an American military reservation. In 1903, a convalescent hospital was established by the United States Army.</p><br>
<p>The Board of Fortifications chaired by William H. Taft recommended that key harbors of territories acquired after the Spanish–American War be fortified. Consequently, Corregidor was fortified and incorporated into the harbor defenses Manila and Subic Bays. In 1908, a Regular Army post was established on the island, designated as Fort Mills, in honor of Brigadier General Samuel Meyers Mills, Jr., Chief of Artillery of the USA Army from 1905 to 1906. By early 1909, H Company of the 2nd Battalion of the Corps of Engineers was assigned to Corregidor and started on the construction of concrete emplacements, bomb-proof shelters, and trails at various parts of the island. This pioneer engineer company left Fort Mills on March 15, 1912. All or part of 35 different numbered Coast Artillery Corps companies served tours at Fort Mills between 1909 and 1923.</p><br>
<p>The defense of Corregidor was the immediate responsibility of the Philippine Coast Artillery Command, commanded by Major General George F. Moore at the start of World War II. Stationed on the island after the return to the regimental system in 1924 were the following regular units:</p><br>
<p>59th Coast Artillery (USA Regular Army)</p><br>
<p>60th Coast Artillery AA (USA Regular Army)</p><br>
<p>91st Coast Artillery (Philippine Scouts)</p><br>
<p>92nd Coast Artillery (Tractor Drawn)(Philippine Scouts)</p><br>
<p>Headquarters, Harbor Defenses of Manila and the Seaward Defense Command.</p><br>
<p>In addition to Fort Mills; the army post on Caballo Island was named Fort Hughes; on El Fraile, Fort Drum; and on Carabao Island, Fort Frank. According to the war plan, these forts could withstand a six-month-long siege, after which the United States would provide aid. The fortifications on Corregidor were designed solely to withstand seaborne attack. Though American military planners realized that airplanes would render Fort Mills obsolete, the United States was restricted from improving the fortifications by the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922. After this, the USA Army constructed the Malinta Tunnel, with its series of related laterals, to protect its military stores and vital installations in the event of war.</p><br>
<p>Fort Mills&#39;s defense installations had cost the USA government more than $150 million, which did not include the expense of fortifying the neighboring islands of Caballo, Carabao, and El Fraile.</p><br>
<h4>Infrastructure</h4><br>
<p>There were 65 mi of paved roads and trails on the island and 19.5 mi of electric railroad track. The latter were used largely to haul heavy equipment and ammunition from Bottomside to the different Batteries. The Corregidor High School was where children of both Filipino and American servicemen assigned on the island studied. The island also had an electric trolley system as public transport, a movie house (Cine Corregidor), a baseball field and a swimming pool. The business and social center of this community was found on Topside.</p><br>
<h4>Water supply</h4><br>
<p>Before the war and during the siege, Corregidor depended on Bataan for most of its potable water. For this purpose, barges were used to haul water either from Mariveles or Cabcaben, Bataan.</p><br>
<h3>World War II</h3><br>
<p>During World War II, Corregidor was the site of two costly sieges and pitched battles—the first during the first months of 1942, and the second in January 1945—between the Imperial Japanese Army and the USA Army, along with its smaller subsidiary force, the Philippine Army.</p><br>
<p>During the Battle of the Philippines (1941–42), the Japanese Army invaded Luzon from the north (at Lingayen Gulf) in early 1942 and attacked Manila from its landward side. The American and Filipino troops under the command of General Douglas MacArthur, retreated into the Bataan Peninsula, west of Manila Bay. The fall of Bataan on April 9, 1942 ended all organized opposition by the USA Armed Forces in the Far East (USAFFE) to the invading Japanese forces on Luzon in the northern Philippines. They were forced to surrender due to the lack of food and ammunition. Eventually Corregidor and its adjacent islets at Manila Bay became the final bastions for holding out against the enemy.</p><br>
<p>Between December 24, 1941 and February 19, 1942, Corregidor was the temporary location for the Government of the Philippines. On December 30, 1941, outside the Malinta Tunnel, Manuel L. Quezon and Sergio Osmeña were inaugurated respectively as President and Vice-President of the Philippines Commonwealth for a second term. General Douglas MacArthur also used Corregidor as Allied headquarters until March 11, 1942. The Voice of Freedom, the radio station of USAFFE broadcast from Corregidor, including the famous announcement of the fall of Bataan. In April 1942, one Battalion of the Fourth Marines was sent to reinforce the island&#39;s beach defenses.</p><br>
<p>The Battle of Corregidor was the culmination of the Japanese campaign for the conquest of the Philippines. The fortifications across the entrance to Manila Bay were the remaining obstacle to the 14th Japanese Imperial Army of Lieutenant General Masaharu Homma. The American and Filipino soldiers on Corregidor and the neighboring islets held out against the Japanese to deny the use of Manila Bay, but the Japanese Army brought heavy artillery to the southern end of Bataan, and proceeded to blockade Corregidor. Japanese troops forced the surrender of the remaining American and Filipino forces on May 6, 1942, under the command of Lt. Gen. Jonathan Wainwright.</p><br>
<p>The battle for the recapture of Corregidor occurred between 16 and 26 February 1945, in which American and Filipino forces liberated the island fortress from Japanese soldiers.</p><br>
<h2>Fortifications</h2><br>
<p>There were 23 batteries installed on Corregidor, consisting of 56 coastal defense guns and mortars. In addition, Corregidor had 13 anti-aircraft artillery batteries with 76 guns (28 3-inch and 48.50-caliber) and 10 60-inch Sperry searchlights.</p><br>
<p>The longest-range coastal pieces were the two 12 in guns of Batteries Hearn and Smith, with a horizontal range of 29,000 yd. Although capable of an all around traverse, these guns, due to their flat trajectories, were not effective for use against targets on Bataan.</p><br>
<p>During the siege, the island had ample armor-piercing ammunition but very little of the anti-personnel type, which then was of greatest demand for use against land targets on Bataan. In fact, most of the anti-personnel shells were only for the 12-inch mortars of Batteries Way and Geary.</p><br>
<h3>Battery Monja</h3><br>
<p>Battery Monja is located on Wheeler Point. It was operated by G Company of the 92nd Coast Artillery Regiment, Philippine Department. The battery had two French 155mm GPF cannon, both of which were hidden in the sides of the islands bluffs. One gun was commanded by 2LT Robert L. Obourn, who claimed that, towards the end of the battle, "You could see the shells wobble towards the ships. Our guns were reduced to nothing more than muskets." Obourns gun was struck and destroyed on 28 April 1942, killing 2 of his gunners. The remaining crew of Battery Monja continued to fight against the Japanese as guerrillas until 18 July 1942. Only 6 men, including Lt. Obourn, survived their capture. The 5 enlisted men that were serving as gunners for the battery attempted to escape from their temporary prison camp two days after capture; they all were killed during their attempted escape.</p><br>
<h3>Battery Way</h3><br>
<p>Battery Way, named for Lt. Henry N Way, which along with Battery Geary, was the mainstay of the Corregidor Garrison during the Japanese invasion. Its mortars, capable of a 360-degree traverse, could fire on land targets at Bataan. They brought the most destruction on Japanese positions during the attempted landings on the southwest coast of Bataan late in January to the middle of February 1942. These mortars were silenced by enemy shelling in May 1942.</p><br>
<h3>Battery Geary</h3><br>
<p>Battery Geary was a battery of eight 13-ton, 12-inch mortars. Defiladed in a hollow on Corregidors Southern coast it was fairly well protected from Japanese shelling. However, on January 6, 1942, under the command of Capt. Ben Ewing King, a Japanese bomb landed in a makeshift temporary bunker killing 31 of Battery Gearys NCOs and canoneers. Early in the morning of January 26 Battery Geary opened fire on a unit of Japanese soldiers near Longaskawayan Point on the west side of the Bataan Peninsula. This was the first time fixed coastal artillery had fired at an enemy since the close of the Civil War. Although the fire was considered accurate and effective Col. Bunker decided to replace Capt. King and he was sent to perform the duties of fort XO and to command HQ Battery on Ft. Drum. He was replaced at Battery Geary by Capt. Thomas W. Davis. Later, this battery was pinpointed by the Japanese artillery and was subjected to heavy shelling. One direct hit by a 240-mm shell, which detonated the magazines of this battery in May 2, 1942, proved to be the most crippling shot during the entire siege of Corregidor. This explosion tossed the fifty ton barrel of the mortar around, one to a distance of 150 yd, another was blown through three feet of reinforced concrete wall into the adjoining powder magazine of Battery Crockett. Large chunks of steel were blown as far as the Malinta Tunnel, killing 27 of the battery crew instantly. Also, one mortar still had a live round in its breech, and it was in the process of firing the shell when the magazine was hit. That live round, of anti-personnel type, still lies within the breach of the mortar.</p><br>
<h2>Corregidor today</h2><br>
<p>After the War, many people, most of them veterans, visited the island because of its history. Today, Corregidor is a historic monument as well as a tourist destination. Many travel companies offer day tours on the island featuring military installations used during World War II. Most of the war-ravaged buildings have not been restored, and left as they were after the war in reverence to the Filipino and American soldiers who died there.</p><br>
<h3>Pacific War Memorial</h3><br>
<p>Standing on the highest part of Corregidors Topside is the Pacific War Memorial, which was built by the United States Government to honor the Filipino and American soldiers who participated in World War II. It was completed in 1968 at the cost of three million dollars. The major memorial structure is a rotunda with a circular altar directly under the domes oculus through which light falls on the altar during daylight hours. Light lands directly on the altar on May 5 at exactly 12 noon, in commemoration of the surrender of the troops stationed there and the courage they exhibited over 72 days of bombing. Located behind the Memorial is the Eternal Flame of Freedom, a 40 ft Corten steel structure commissioned to Aristides Demetrios symbolizing freedom.</p><br>
<h3>Malinta Tunnel</h3><br>
<p>The Malinta Tunnel, which is the last stronghold of the joint Philippine and American military prior to the Japanese takeover during the World War II, is now home to an audio-visual presentation by National Artist Lamberto V. Avellana of the events that took place on the island, including the reluctant departure of General Douglas MacArthur and the evacuation of the Philippine president Manuel L. Quezon and his family to unoccupied areas of the Philippines and eventually in exile in the United States.</p><br>
<h3>Filipino Heroes Memorial</h3><br>
<p>One of the most recent additions to Corregidor is the Filipino Heroes Memorial located in the Tail End. This 6,000-square meter complex has 14 murals depicting heroic battles fought by Filipinos from the 15th century up to the present day. It was designed by Francisco Mañosa, while the murals and a statue of a Filipino guerrilla were sculpted by Manuel Casas. The complex was inaugurated by President Fidel V. Ramos on August 28, 1992.</p><br>
<h3>Japanese Garden of Peace</h3><br>
<p>This garden was built as a memorial to the Japanese soldiers who served and died on the island during World War II. The park includes a praying area, shrines, markers and a small pavilion that houses photographs and memorabilia.</p><br>
<h3>Corregidor lighthouse</h3><br>
<p>The lighthouse on Topside is one of the oldest landmarks in Corregidor, first lit in 1853. In 1897, the defective lighting apparatus was changed, extending the range to 33 mi. The grounds and keeper&#39;s dwellings were further improved during the American occupation. During World War II, the lighthouse was damaged during the siege of Corregidor. The lighthouse was totally reconstructed in the 1950s with a different design and stands on the same spot where the first lighthouse once stood. The whole lantern of the lighthouse was recently replaced by the Philippine Coast Guard to run on solar power.</p><br>
<h2>Notable residents</h2><br>
<p>Selma Calmes, anesthesiologist, was born on Corregidor.</p><br>
<p>The Lesser Antilles  are a group of islands in the Caribbean Sea. Most form a long, partly volcanic island arc between the Greater Antilles to the north-west and the continent of South America. The islands form the eastern boundary of the Caribbean Sea with the Atlantic Ocean. Together, the Lesser Antilles and the Greater Antilles compose the Antilles . When combined with the Lucayan Archipelago, all three are known as the West Indies.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The islands of the Lesser Antilles are divided into three groups: the Windward Islands in the south, the Leeward Islands in the north, and the Leeward Antilles in the west.</p><br>
<p>The Windward Islands are so called because they were more windward to sailing ships arriving in the New World than the Leeward Islands, given that the prevailing trade winds blow east to west. The trans-Atlantic currents and winds that provided the fastest route across the ocean brought these ships to the rough dividing line between the Windward and Leeward Islands.</p><br>
<p>The Leeward Antilles consist of the Dutch ABC islands just off the coast of Venezuela, plus a group of Venezuelan islands.</p><br>
<h2>Geological formation</h2><br>
<p>The Lesser Antilles more or less coincide with the outer edge of the Caribbean Plate. Many of the islands were formed as a result of the subduction of oceanic crust of the South American Plate under the Caribbean Plate in the Lesser Antilles subduction zone. This process is ongoing and is responsible not only for many of the islands, but also for volcanic and earthquake activity in the region. The islands along the South American coast are largely the result of the interaction of the South American Plate and the Caribbean Plate which is mainly strike-slip, but includes a component of compression.</p><br>
<h2>Political divisions</h2><br>
<p>The Lesser Antilles are divided into eight independent nations and numerous dependent and non-sovereign states (which are politically associated with the United Kingdom, France, the Netherlands, and the United States). Over one third of the total area and population of the Lesser Antilles lies within Trinidad and Tobago, a sovereign nation comprising the two southernmost islands of the Windward Island chain.</p><br>
<h3>Sovereign states</h3><br>
<h3>Non-sovereign states/countries and territories</h3><br>
<p>Several islands along the north coast of Venezuela and politically part of that country are also occasionally considered part of the Lesser Antilles. These are listed in the section below.</p><br>
<h2>Islands</h2><br>
<p>The main Lesser Antilles are (from north to south to west):</p><br>
<h3>Leeward Islands</h3><br>
<p>Virgin Islands</p><br>
<p>St. Thomas (US)</p><br>
<p>St. John (US)</p><br>
<p>St. Croix (US)</p><br>
<p>Water Island (US)</p><br>
<p>Tortola (UK)</p><br>
<p>Virgin Gorda (UK)</p><br>
<p>Anegada (UK)</p><br>
<p>Jost Van Dyke (UK)</p><br>
<p>Anguilla (UK)</p><br>
<p>Saint Martin (Fr.) / Sint Maarten (Neth.)</p><br>
<p>Saint Barthélemy (Fr.)</p><br>
<p>Saba (Neth.)</p><br>
<p>Sint Eustatius (Neth.)</p><br>
<p>Saint Kitts (St. Kitts and Nevis)</p><br>
<p>Nevis (St. Kitts and Nevis)</p><br>
<p>Barbuda (Antigua and Barbuda)</p><br>
<p>Antigua (Antigua and Barbuda)</p><br>
<p>Redonda (Antigua and Barbuda) uninhabited</p><br>
<p>Montserrat (UK)</p><br>
<p>Basse-Terre and Grande-Terre (often combined as Guadeloupe) (Fr.)</p><br>
<p>La Désirade (Fr.)</p><br>
<p>Marie-Galante (Fr.)</p><br>
<p>les Saintes archipelago (Fr.)</p><br>
<h3>Windward Islands</h3><br>
<p>Dominica (Dominica)</p><br>
<p>Martinique (Fr.)</p><br>
<p>Saint Lucia (St. Lucia)</p><br>
<p>Barbados (Barbados is a Continental island found 100 mi east of the Windward chain)</p><br>
<p>Saint Vincent (St. Vincent and the Grenadines)</p><br>
<p>Grenadines (St. Vincent and the Grenadines)</p><br>
<p>Carriacou and Petite Martinique (Grenada)</p><br>
<p>Grenada (Grenada)</p><br>
<p>Tobago</p><br>
<p>Trinidad (Sometimes considered part of the Windward Islands. They are the most southern islands of the Caribbean region.</p><br>
<h3>Leeward Antilles</h3><br>
<p>Islands north of the Venezuelan coast (from west to east):</p><br>
<p>Aruba (Neth.)</p><br>
<p>Curaçao (Neth.)</p><br>
<p>Bonaire (Neth.)</p><br>
<p>Federal Dependencies of Venezuela (Ven)</p><br>
<p>Los Roques Archipelago</p><br>
<p>La Orchila</p><br>
<p>La Tortuga</p><br>
<p>La Blanquilla</p><br>
<p>Margarita Island</p><br>
<p>Coche</p><br>
<p>Cubagua</p><br>
<p>Hull House was a settlement house in the United States that was co-founded in 1889 by Jane Addams and Ellen Gates Starr. Located in the Near West Side of Chicago, Illinois, Hull House  opened to recently arrived European immigrants. By 1911, Hull House had grown to 13 buildings. In 1912 the Hull House complex was completed with the addition of a summer camp, the Bowen Country Club. With its innovative social, educational, and artistic programs, Hull House became the standard bearer for the movement that had grown, by 1920, to almost 500 settlement houses nationally.</p><br>
<p>Most of the Hull House buildings were demolished for the construction of the University of Illinois-Circle Campus in the mid-1960s. The Hull mansion and several subsequent acquisitions were continuously renovated to accommodate the changing demands of the association. The original building and one additional building (which has been moved 200 yd) survive today. On June 12, 1974, the Hull House building was designated a Chicago Landmark. On June 23, 1965, it was designated as a USA National Historic Landmark. On October 15, 1966, which is the day that the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 was enacted, it was listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Hull House was one of the four original members to be listed on both the Chicago Registered Historic Places and the National Register of Historic Places list (along with Chicago Pile-1, Robie House & Lorado Taft Midway Studios). The Hull House Association ceased operations in January 2012, but the Hull mansion and a related dining hall remain open as a museum.</p><br>
<h2>Mission</h2><br>
<p>Addams followed the example of Toynbee Hall, which was founded in 1884 in the East End of London as a center for social reform. She described Toynbee Hall as "a community of university men" who, while living there, held their recreational clubs and social gatherings at the settlement house among the poor people and in the same style they would in their own circle. Addams and Starr established Hull House as a settlement house on September 18, 1889.</p><br>
<p>In the 19th century a women&#39;s movement began to promote education, autonomy, and break into traditionally male dominated occupations for women. Organizations led by women, bonded by sisterhood, were formed for social reform, including settlement houses in working class and poor neighborhoods, like Hull House. To develop "new roles for women, the first generation of New Women wove the traditional ways of their mothers into the heart of their brave new world. The social activists, often single, were led by educated New Women.</p><br>
<p>Hull House became, at its inception in 1889, "a community of university women" whose main purpose was to provide social and educational opportunities for working class people (many of them recent European immigrants) in the surrounding neighborhood. The "residents" (volunteers at Hull were given this title) held classes in literature, history, art, domestic activities (such as sewing), and many other subjects. Hull House also held concerts that were free to everyone, offered free lectures on current issues, and operated clubs for both children and adults.</p><br>
<p>In 1892, Addams published her thoughts on what has been described as "the three R&#39;s" of the settlement house movement: residence, research, and reform. These involved "close cooperation with the neighborhood people, scientific study of the causes of poverty and dependence, communication of these facts to the public, and persistent pressure for reform..." Hull House conducted careful studies of the Near West Side, Chicago community, which became known as "The Hull House Neighborhood". These studies enabled the Hull House residents to confront the establishment, eventually partnering with them in the design and implementation of programs intended to enhance and improve the opportunities for success by the largely immigrant population.</p><br>
<p>According to Christie and Gauvreau (2001), while the Christian settlement houses sought to Christianize, Jane Addams, “had come to epitomize the force of secular humanism.” Her image was, however, “reinvented” by the Christian churches. According to the Jane Addams Hull-House Museum, "Some social settlements were linked to religious institutions. Others, like Hull-House, were secular."</p><br>
<h2>The Hull House neighborhood</h2><br>
<p>One of the first newspaper articles ever written about Hull House quotes the following invitation sent to the residents of the Hull House neighborhood. It begins with: "Mio Carissimo Amico"…and is signed, Le Signorine, Jane Addams and Ellen Starr. That invitation to the community, written during the first year of Hull House&#39;s existence, suggests that the inner core of what Addams labeled "The Hull House Neighborhood" was overwhelmingly Italian at that time. "10,000 Italians lived between the river and Halsted Street."</p><br>
<p>By all accounts, the greater Hull House neighborhood (Chicago&#39;s Near West Side) was a mix of various ethnic groups that had immigrated to Chicago. There was no discrimination of race, language, creed, or tradition for those who entered the doors of the Hull House. Every person was treated with respect. The Bethlehem-Howard Neighborhood Center records substantiate that, "Germans and Jews resided south of that inner core (south of twelfth street)…The Greek delta formed by Harrison, Halsted and Blue Island Streets served as a buffer to the Irish residing to the south and the Canadian–French to the northwest. From the river on the east end, on out to the western ends of what came to be known as "Little Italy", from Roosevelt Road on the south to the Harrison Street delta on the north, became the port-of-call for Italians who continued to immigrate to Chicago from the shores of southern Italy until a quota system was implemented in 1924 for most southern Europeans.</p><br>
<p>The Greektown and Maxwell Street residents, along with the remnants of other immigrant groups living on the outer fringes of the Hull House Neighborhood, disappeared long before the physical demise of Hull House. The exodus of most ethnic groups began shortly after the turn of the twentieth century. Their businesses, e.g. Greektown and Maxwell Street, however, remained. Italian Americans were the only immigrant group that endured as a vibrant on-going community. That community came to be known as "Little Italy". Taylor Streets Little Italy, the inner core of Addams "Hull House Neighborhood", remained as the laboratory upon which the social and philanthropic groups of Hull House elitists had tested their theories and formulated their challenges to the establishment.</p><br>
<p>The synergy between Taylor Street’s Little Italy and the Hull House complex; i.e., the settlement house and its summer camp, the Bowen Country Club, is well documented. Alice Hamilton, medical professional and early member of that elite Hull House hierarchy, wrote in her autobiography, "Those Italian women knew what a baby needed, far better than my Ann Arbor professors did." The ancillary literature between, among and about members of Hull Houses inner sanctum of sociologists and philanthropists is littered with such comments, reinforcing the relationship that existed between Taylor Streets Little Italy and Hull House. A review of the ethnic composition of those who registered for and utilized the services provided by the Hull House complex, during its 74 years as a tenant of the near-west side, suggests an ethnic bias. Of the 257 known WWII veterans who were alumni of the Bowen Country Club, "virtually all had a vowel at the end of their names...denoting their Italian heritage."</p><br>
<p>A historic picture, "Meet the Hull House Kids," was taken on a summer day in 1924 by Wallace K. Kirkland Sr., Hull House Director. He later became a top photographer with Life. The twenty Hull House Kids were erroneously described as young boys, of Irish ancestry, posing in the Dante School yard on Forquer Street (now Arthington Street). It circulated the world as a "poster child" of sorts for the Hull House social experiment. On April 5, 1987, over a half century later, the Chicago Sun-Times refuted the contention that the Hull House Boys were of Irish ancestry. In doing so, the Sun-Times article listed the names of each of the young boys. All twenty boys were first-generation Italian-Americans, all with vowels at the end of their names. "They grew up to be lawyers and mechanics, sewer workers and dump truck drivers, a candy shop owner, a boxer and a mob boss."</p><br>
<p>Because of the immigrants’ loneliness for their homeland, Addams started hosting ethnic evenings at Hull House. This would include ethnic food, dancing, music, and maybe a short lecture on a topic of interest. Some of the themed evenings were Italian, Greek, German, Polish, etc. Ellen Gates Starr described one Italian evening as having the room packed full with people. One of the ladies who attended “recited a patriotic poem with great spirit” and everyone was moved by it.</p><br>
<h3>Accomplishments</h3><br>
<p>Throughout the first two decades, along with thousands of immigrants from the surrounding area, Hull House attracted many female residents who later became prominent and influential reformers at various levels. At the beginning, Addams and Starr volunteered as on-call doctors when the real doctors either didnt show up or werent available. They acted as midwives, saved babies from neglect, prepared the dead for burial, nursed the sick, and sheltered domestic violence victims. For example, one Italian bride had lost her wedding ring and in turn was beaten by her husband for a week. She sought shelter at the settlement and it was granted to her. Also, a baby born with a cleft palate was unwanted by his mother so he was kept at the Hull House for six weeks after an operation. In another case, a woman was about to give birth to an illegitimate baby, so none of the Irish matrons would touch it. Addams and Starr stepped in and delivered this helpless little one. Finally, a female Italian immigrant was so thrilled about fresh roses at one of the Hull House receptions that she insisted they had come from Italy. She had never seen anything as beautiful in America despite the fact that she lived within ten blocks of a florist shop. Her limited view of America came from the untidy street she lived on and the long struggle to adapt to American ways. The settlement was also gradually drawn into advocating for legislative reforms at the municipal, state and federal levels, addressing issues such as child labor, women&#39;s suffrage, healthcare reform and immigration policy. Some claim that the work of the Hull House marked the beginning of what we know today as "Social Welfare".</p><br>
<p>At the neighborhood level, Hull House established the city’s first public playground, bathhouse, and public gymnasium (in 1893), pursued educational and political reform, and investigated housing, working, and sanitation issues. The playground opened on May Day in 1893, located on Polk Street. Families dressed in party attire and came to join the celebration that day. Addams became the founder of the National Playground Association and advocated for playgrounds nationwide. She had studied child behavior and painfully concluded that “children robbed of childhood were likely to become dull, sullen men and women working mindless jobs, or criminals for whom the adventure of crime became the only way to break out of the bleakness of their lives” Also, one volunteer, Jenny Dow, started a kindergarten class for children left at the settlement while their mothers worked in the sweatshops. Within three weeks, Dow had 24 registered kindergartners and 70 on a waiting list. At the municipal level, their pursuit of legal reforms led to the first juvenile court in the United States, and their work influenced urban planning and the transition to a branch library system. At the state level Hull House influenced legislation on child labor laws, occupational safety and health provisions, compulsory education, immigrant rights, and pension laws. These experiences translated to success at the federal level, working with the settlement house network to champion national child labor laws, women’s suffrage, a children’s bureau, unemployment compensation, workers&#39; compensation, and other elements of the Progressive agenda during the first two decades of the twentieth century.</p><br>
<h3>Teachings</h3><br>
<p>Later, the settlement branched out and offered services to ameliorate some of the effects of poverty. A public dispensary provided nutritious food for the sick as well as a daycare center and public baths. Among the courses Hull House offered was a bookbinding course, which was timely — given the employment opportunities in the growing printing trade. Hull House was well known for its success in aiding American assimilation, especially with immigrant youth. Hull House became the center of the movement to promote hand workmanship as a moral regenerative force. Under the direction of Laura Dainty Pelham their theater group performed the Chicago premiers of several plays by John Galsworthy, Henrik Ibsen, and George Bernard Shaw, and was given credit for founding the American Little Theatre Movement. The success of Hull House led Paul Kellogg to refer to the group as the "Great Ladies of Halsted Street".</p><br>
<p>The objective of Hull House, as stated in its charter, was: "To provide a center for a higher civic and social life; to institute and maintain educational and philanthropic enterprises, and to investigate and improve the conditions in the industrial districts of Chicago."</p><br>
<h2>The building and museum</h2><br>
<p>Hull House was located in Chicago, Illinois, and took its name from the Italianate mansion built by real estate magnate Charles Jerald Hull (1820–1889) at 800 South Halsted Street in 1856. The building was located in what had once been a fashionable part of town, but by 1889, when Addams was searching for a location for her experiment, it had descended into squalor. This was partly due to the rapid and overwhelming influx of immigrants into the Near West Side neighborhood. Charles Hull granted his former home to his niece Helen Culver, who in turn granted it to Addams on a 25-year rent-free lease. By 1907, Addams had acquired 13 buildings surrounding Hulls mansion. Between 1889 and 1935, Addams and Ellen Gates Starr continuously redeveloped the building. In 1912, the Bowen Country Club summer camp was added to complete the Hull House complex. The facility remained at the original location until it was purchased in 1963 by what was then called the University of Illinois-Circle Campus. The development of University of Illinois-Circle Campus required the demolition of most of the Hull House buildings and the 1967 restoration to the original building by Frazier, Raftery, Orr and Fairbank removed Addamss third floor addition. In addition to the mansion, of the dozen additional buildings only the craftsman style dining hall (built in 1905 and designed by Pond & Pond) survives and it was moved 200 yd from its original site to be next to the mansion.</p><br>
<h3>The haunting of Hull House</h3><br>
<p>Addams noted upon moving in that the building had a "half skeptical reputation for a haunted attic." Over the years, numerous stories of ghosts and hauntings have surrounded Hull House, making it a stop on many of the "ghosts in Chicago" tours. Charles Hull&#39;s wife had died in the house in 1860, and is sometimes thought to haunt it. Other candidates for resident ghosts include the many people who died there of natural causes in the 1870s when it was used as a home for the aged by the Little Sisters of the Poor.</p><br>
<p>In 1913, another Hull House ghost story began circulating. According to this legend, after a man claimed that he would rather have the Devil in his house than a picture of The Virgin Mary, his child was born with pointed ears, horns, scale-covered skin, and a tail. The mother was said to have taken the baby to Hull House, where Addams was said to have attempted to have it baptized and wound up locking it in the attic. While initially annoyed about the story, which had no basis in fact, Addams became fascinated by the effect the episode had on old women in the neighborhood and used the episode as a basis for her book, The Long Road of Woman&#39;s Memory.</p><br>
<p>While a great many erroneous stories have circulated about the building, Addams is known to have spoken to several friends about one of the front bedrooms on the second floor being haunted – she and a friend once thought they saw a "woman in white" ghost there, and the same ghost was later seen by a group of girls when the room was used as a dressing room for the adjacent theater. Though Addams called it "haunted," she seems to have been more amused than frightened by it.</p><br>
<h2>Theater</h2><br>
<p>Addams felt that the community benefits from theater plays and thus established an amateur theater in the Hull House in 1899. “The neighborhood Greeks performed the classic plays of antiquity in their own language and the children of European immigrants produced Shakespeare” as well as others. Early one December, the Greeks performed Odysseus in Chicago. The auditorium was filled with a multi-ethnic crowd and packed too close for comfort. The audience was very eager and gave the performers “rapt attention." They watched neighbors and co-workers execute this primitive play, but it was very powerful, plausible, and personal. The actors seemed to pay “tribute to a noble ancestry” and plea for the respect of the audience. Indeed, they did gain this respect because it was said that not even trained college students could give the same play with as much zeal and patriotism. Chicago&#39;s noted improvisational theatre scene has roots in Hull House, as Viola Spolin, noted improvisational techniques instructor, taught classes at Hull House. In 1963, when road tours of Broadway productions became common, the Hull House Theater in the Jane Addams Center at 3212 North Broadway fostered the development of Chicago Theater companies for the rest of the century. Founder Robert Sickinger created an environment to nourish young talent with professionalism.</p><br>
<h2>1930s to 2012</h2><br>
<p>Addams was head resident until her death in 1935. Hull House continued to serve the community surrounding the Halsted location until it was displaced by the urban branch campus of the University of Illinois in the 1960s. Until 2012, the social service center role was performed throughout the city at various locations under an umbrella organization, the Jane Addams Hull House Association. The original Hull House building itself is a museum, part of the College of Architecture and the Arts at the University of Illinois at Chicago, and is open to the public.</p><br>
<p>The Jane Addams Hull House Association was one of Chicago’s largest nonprofit social welfare organizations. Its mission was to improve social conditions for underserved people and communities by providing creative, innovative programs and by advocating for related public policy reforms. The Association had more than 50 programs at over 40 sites throughout Chicago and served approximately 60,000 individuals, families, and community members every year.</p><br>
<p>The Jane Addams Hull-House Museum is part of the College of Architecture and the Arts at the University of Illinois at Chicago and serves as a memorial to Addams and other resident social reformers, whose work influenced the lives of their immigrant neighbors, as well as national and international public policy. The museum and its programs connect the work of Hull House residents to important contemporary social issues. The Museum&#39;s collection includes over 1,100 artifacts related to Hull House history and over 100 oral interviews conducted with people who have shared their stories about Hull House and the surrounding neighborhood.</p><br>
<h3>Hull House Association closure</h3><br>
<p>On January 19, 2012, it was announced that Jane Addams Hull House Association would close in the spring of 2012 and file for bankruptcy due to financial difficulties, after 122 years. On Friday, January 27, 2012, Hull House closed unexpectedly and all employees received their final paychecks. Employees learned at time of closing that they would not receive severance pay or earned vacation pay or healthcare coverage. Union officials said that the agency closed while owing employees more than $27,000 in unpaid expense reimbursement claims. The University of Illinois at Chicago&#39;s Jane Addams Hull-House Museum (unaffiliated with the agency), however, will remain open.</p><br>
<h2>Selected notable residents</h2><br>
<p>Edith Abbott</p><br>
<p>Grace Abbott</p><br>
<p>Jane Addams</p><br>
<p>Ethel Percy Andrus</p><br>
<p>Viola Spolin</p><br>
<p>Neva Boyd</p><br>
<p>Charlotte Perkins Gilman</p><br>
<p>Sophonisba Breckinridge</p><br>
<p>Edward L Burchard, the first male resident</p><br>
<p>Dorothy Detzer</p><br>
<p>Pauline Gibling Schindler</p><br>
<p>Henry Standing Bear</p><br>
<p>Alice Hamilton</p><br>
<p>Florence Kelley</p><br>
<p>Mary Kenney O&#39;Sullivan</p><br>
<p>Julia Lathrop</p><br>
<p>Mary McDowell</p><br>
<p>Ernest Carroll Moore, founder and first provost of UCLA.</p><br>
<p>Frances Perkins</p><br>
<p>Gerard Swope, General Electric Company (1922–1939)</p><br>
<p>Alzina Stevens</p><br>
<p>Cornelia De Bey</p><br>
<p>Eleanor Clarke Slagle, founder of occupational therapy</p><br>
<p>Victor Yarros and Rachelle Yarros</p><br>
<p>Enella Benedict</p><br>
<p>Emily Edwards(de Cantabrana)</p><br>
<p>Willard Motley, author: Knock on Any Door. Resident writer at Hull House, Willard Motley used the Hull House Neighborhood, Taylor Street&#39;s Little Italy, and its people for the setting of his 1949 best seller.</p><br>
<h2>Selected notable alumni</h2><br>
<p>Benny Goodman</p><br>
<p>Hirta  is the largest island in the St Kilda archipelago, on the western edge of Scotland. The names "Hiort"  and "Hirta"  have also been applied to the entire archipelago.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The island measures 3.4 km from east to west, and 3.3 km from north to south. It has an area of 6.285 km&sup2; and about 15 km of coastline. The only real landing place is in the shelter of Village Bay on the southeast side of the island. The island slopes gently down to the sea at Glen Bay (at the western end of the north coast), but the rocks go straight into the sea at a shallow angle and landing here is not easy if there is any swell at all. Apart from these two places, the cliffs rise sheer out of deep water. However, sea kayakers can also land for a break on a small boulder beach backed by cliffs in the north of the island, just before the northeast side where the highest summit in the island, Conachair, forms a precipice 430 m. St Kilda is probably the core of a Tertiary volcano, but, besides volcanic rocks, it contains hills of sandstone in which the stratification is distinct.</p><br>
<p>Dùn is separated from Hirta by a shallow strait about 50 m wide, which is normally impassable but is reputed to dry out on rare occasions.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>The origin of Hirta is open to interpretation. Martin (1703) states that "Hirta is taken from the Irish Ier, which in that language signifies west". Maclean offers several options, including an unspecified Celtic word meaning "gloom" or "death", later suggested to be Ei hirt – dangerous or deathlike, or the Scots Gaelic h-Iar-Tìr ("westland"). Drawing on an Icelandic saga describing an early 13th-century voyage to Ireland that mentions a visit to the islands of "Hirtir", he speculates that the shape of Hirta resembles a stag, (Hirtir meaning "stags" in Norse). Steel (1998) quotes the view of Reverend Neil Mackenzie, who lived there from 1829 to 1844, that the name is derived from the Gaelic Ì Àrd ("high island"), and a further possibility that it is from the Norse Hirt ("shepherd"). In a similar vein, Murray (1966) speculates that the Norse Hirðö, pronounced Hirtha ("herd island"), may be the origin.</p><br>
<h2>Population</h2><br>
<p>The islands were continuously populated from prehistoric times until 1930, when the remaining inhabitants were evacuated. On 29 August the 36 inhabitants were removed to Morvern on the Scottish mainland at their own request.</p><br>
<p>The morning of the evacuation promised a perfect day. The sun rose out of a calm and sparkling sea and warmed the impassive cliffs of Oiseval. The sky was hopelessly blue and the sight of Hirta, green and pleasant as the island of so many careless dreams, made parting all the more difficult. Observing tradition the islanders left an open Bible and a small pile of oats in each house, locked all the doors and at 7 am boarded the Harebell. Although exhausted by the strain and hard work of the last few days, they were reported to have stayed cheerful throughout the operation. But as the long antler of Dun fell back onto the horizon and the familiar outline of the island grew faint, the severing of an ancient tie became a reality and the St Kildans gave way to tears.</p><br>
<p>St. Kilda was part of the Lordship of the Isles, then a property of the MacLeods of Dunvegan from 1498 until 1930. There were three chapels on St. Kilda, dedicated to Saint Brendan, Saint Columba, and Christ Church, but little remains. There are also the remains of a beehive house, known as the Amazon&#39;s House.</p><br>
<p>The islanders had a tough life, and survived by exploiting the thousands of sea birds living on the islands. There are a large number of cleits, huts used for storing dried sea birds, fish, hay and turf. The islanders had a very democratic system, and decisions were taken by an island council, made up of all the menfolk. The present village was set out in the 1830s above Village Bay; in the 1880s some of the population left for Australia, with the remaining inhabitants being evacuated in 1930.</p><br>
<p>The island was bequeathed to the National Trust for Scotland in 1957 and was designated as Scotland&#39;s first World Heritage Site in 1987. It is possible to visit the island. The Ministry of Defence established a base on Hirta for tracking missiles fired from the station on South Uist.</p><br>
<h2>Surrounding stacks</h2><br>
<p>Hirta is surrounded by a number of small stacks. Bradastac, Mina Stac and Sgeir Domhnuill lie under the cliffs of Conachair to the east and Sgeir nan Sgarbh further south under the heights of Osieval. An Torc is west of Ruabhal and Sgeir Mhòr is further north under Mullach Bi.</p><br>
<p>There are also various large stacks in the narrow strait between Hirta and Soay: Stac Dona, Stac Soay and Stac Biorach.</p><br>
<p>The Balleny Islands  are a series of uninhabited islands in the Southern Ocean extending from 66°15 to 67°35S and 162°30 to 165°00E. The group extends for about 160 km in a northwest-southeast direction. The islands are heavily glaciated and of volcanic origin. Glaciers project from their slopes into the sea. The islands were formed by the so-called Balleny hotspot.</p><br>
<p>The group includes three main islands: Young, Buckle and Sturge, which lie in a line from northwest to southeast, and several smaller islets and rocks:</p><br>
<p>northeast of Young Island: Seal Rocks, Pillar</p><br>
<p>southeast of Young Island: Row Island, Borradaile Island (with Swan Base shelter hut)</p><br>
<p>south of Buckle Island: Scott Cone, Chinstrap Islet, Sabrina Islet (with Sabrina Refuge shelter hut), and The Monolith</p><br>
<p>The islands are part of the Ross Dependency, claimed by New Zealand (see Territorial claims in Antarctica).</p><br>
<h2>Islands and rocks from north to south</h2><br>
<p>The Antarctic Circle is close to Borradaile Island, in the eight kilometre channel between Young and Buckle Islands. Buckle Island and the nearby Sabrina Islet are home to several colonies of Adelie and chinstrap penguins.</p><br>
<p>The English whaling captains John Balleny and Thomas Freeman first sighted the group during 1839: Freeman was the first person to land on any of the islands on 9 February 1839, and it was the first landing south of the Antarctic Circle. The islands&#39; area totals 400 km&sup2; and the highest point has been measured as 1,705 m or approximately 1500m (5000 feet) (the unclimbed Brown Peak on Sturge Island).</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>In the archipelago, the Buckle, Sturge and Young Islands are examples of stratovolcanoes. Strong earthquakes very close to the islands are rare, but tremors of moderate strength do occur over the Pacific–Antarctic Ridge, Macquarie Triple Junction and Pacific Rim between the Balleny Islands and Macquarie Island. Other earthquakes occur near the Southeast Indian Ridge and Balleny Fracture Zone, including a magnitude 8.1 earthquake in 1998 that struck just over 700 km west-northwest of the Islands.</p><br>
<p>The Ross Sea is a deep bay of the Southern Ocean in Antarctica, between Victoria Land and Marie Byrd Land. It derives its name from the British explorer James Ross who visited this area in 1841. To the west of the sea lies Ross Island and to the east Roosevelt Island, while the southernmost part is covered by the Ross Ice Shelf, and is about 200 mi from the South Pole.</p><br>
<p>The underlying rocks are of upper Precambrian to lower Paleozoic age and are partly composed of calcium carbonate. The circulation of the Ross Sea is dominated by a wind-driven ocean gyre and the flow is strongly influenced by three submarine ridges that run from southwest to northeast. The circumpolar deep water current is a relatively warm, salty and nutrient-rich water mass that flows onto the continental shelf at certain locations. The Ross Sea is covered with ice for most of the year.</p><br>
<p>The nutrient-laden water supports an abundance of plankton and this encourages a rich marine fauna. At least ten mammal species, six bird species and 95 fish species are found here, as well as many invertebrates, and the sea remains relatively unaffected by human activities. New Zealand has claimed that the sea comes under their jurisdiction as part of the Ross Dependency, but this is disputed by other nations. Marine biologists consider the sea to have a high level of biological diversity and it is the site of much scientific research. It is also the focus of some environmentalist groups who have campaigned to have the area proclaimed as a world marine reserve.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The Ross Sea was discovered by James Ross in 1841. In the west of the Ross Sea is Ross Island with the Mt. Erebus volcano, in the east Roosevelt Island. The southern part is covered by the Ross Ice Shelf. Roald Amundsen started his South Pole expedition in 1911 from the Bay of Whales, which was located at the shelf. In the west of the Ross sea, McMurdo Sound is a port which is usually free of ice during the summer. The southernmost part of the Ross Sea is Gould Coast, which is approximately two hundred miles from the geographic South Pole.</p><br>
<p>A 10-metre (32.8 feet) long colossal squid weighing 495 kilograms (1,091 lb) was captured in the Ross Sea on February 22, 2007.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<h3>The Ross System</h3><br>
<p>Ross System rocks are of upper Precambrian to lower Paleozoic age and each group of Ross System have an echelon vein pattern demonstrating possible dextral faulting. These miogeosyncline metasedimentary rocks are usually folded about northwest and southeast axes and are partly composed of calcium carbonate, often including limestone. Groups within the Ross System include the Robertson Bay Group, Priestley Group, Skelton Group, Beardmore Group, Byrd Group, Queen Maud Group, and Koettlitz Group. The Robertson Bay Group ranges from 56 to 76% silica and compares closely with other Ross System members. The Priestley Group rocks are similar to those of the Robertson Bay Group and include dark slates, argillites, siltstones, fine sandstones and limestones. They can be found near the Priestley and Campbell glaciers. For thirty miles along the lower Skelton Glacier are the calcareous greywackes and argillites of the Skelton Group. The region between the lower Beardmore Glacier and the lower Shackelton Glacier sits the Beardmore Group. North of the Nimrod Glacier are four block faulted ranges that make up the Byrd Group. The contents of the Queen Maud Group area are mainly post-tectonic granite.</p><br>
<h2>Oceanography</h2><br>
<h3>Circulation</h3><br>
<p>The Ross Sea circulation, dominated by polynya processes, is in general very slow-moving. Circumpolar Deep Water (CDW) is a relatively warm, salty and nutrient-rich water mass that flows onto the continental shelf at certain locations in the Ross Sea. Through heat flux, this water mass moderates the ice cover. The near-surface water also provides a warm environment for some animals and nutrients to excite primary production. CDW transport onto the shelf is known to be persistent and periodic, and is thought to occur at specific locations influenced by bottom topography. The circulation of the Ross Sea is dominated by a wind-driven gyre. The flow is strongly influenced by three submarine ridges that run from southwest to northeast. Flow over the shelf below the surface layer consists of two anticyclonic gyres connected by a central cyclonic flow. The flow is considerable in spring and winter, due to influencing tides. The Ross Sea is covered with ice for much of the year and ice concentrations and in the south-central region little melting occurs. Ice concentrations in the Ross Sea are influenced by winds with ice remaining in the western region throughout the austral spring and generally melting in January due to local heating. This leads to extremely strong stratification and shallow mixed layers in the western Ross Sea.</p><br>
<h2>Ecological importance and conservation</h2><br>
<p>The Ross Sea is one of the last stretches of seas on Earth that remains relatively unaffected by human activities. Because of this, it remains almost totally free from pollution and the introduction of invasive species. Consequently, the Ross Sea has become a focus of numerous environmentalist groups who have campaigned to make the area a world marine reserve, citing the rare opportunity to protect the Ross Sea from a growing number of threats and destruction. The Ross Sea is regarded by marine biologists as having a very high biological diversity and as such has a long history of human exploration and scientific research, with some datasets going back over 150 years.</p><br>
<h3>Biodiversity</h3><br>
<p>The Ross Sea is home to at least 10 mammal species, half a dozen species of birds, 95 species of fish, and over 1,000 invertebrate species. Some species of birds that nest in and near the Ross Sea include the Adélie penguin, emperor penguin, Antarctic petrel, snow petrel, and south polar skua. Marine mammals in the Ross Sea include the Antarctic minke whale, killer whale, Weddell seal, crabeater seal, and leopard seal. Antarctic toothfish, Antarctic silverfish, Antarctic krill, and crystal krill also swim in the cold Antarctic water of the Ross Sea.</p><br>
<p>The flora and fauna are considered similar to other southern Antarctic marine regions. Particularly in Summer, the nutrient-rich sea water supports an abundant planktonic life in turn providing food for larger species, such as fish, seals, whales, and sea- and shore-birds.</p><br>
<p>Albatrosses rely on wind to travel and cannot get airborne in a calm. The westerlies do not extend as far south as the ice edge and therefore albatrosses do not travel often to the ice-pack. An albatross would be trapped on an ice floe for many days if it landed in the calm.</p><br>
<p>The coastal parts of the sea contain a number of rookeries of Adélie and Emperor penguins, which have been observed at a number of places around the Ross Sea, both towards the coast and outwards in open sea.</p><br>
<h3>Toothfish Fishery</h3><br>
<p>In 2010, the Ross Sea Antarctic toothfish fishery was independently certified by the Marine Stewardship Council, and has been rated as a Good Alternative by the Monterey Bay Aquarium Seafood Watch program. However, a 2008 document submitted to the CCAMLR reported significant declines in toothfish populations of McMurdo Sound coinciding with the development of the industrial toothfishing industry since 1996, and other reports have noted a coincident decrease in the number of orcas. The report recommended a full moratorium on fishing over the Ross shelf. In October 2012, Philippa Ross, James Ross&#39; great, great, great granddaughter, voiced her opposition to fishing in the area.</p><br>
<p>In the southern winter of 2017 New Zealand scientists discovered the breeding ground of the Antarctic toothfish in the northern Ross Sea seamounts for the first time underscoring how little is known about the species.</p><br>
<h3>Marine Protected Area</h3><br>
<p>Beginning in 2005, the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) commissioned scientific analysis and planning for Marine Protected Areas (MPA) in the Antarctic. In 2010, the CCAMLR endorsed their Scientific Committee’s proposal to develop Antarctic MPAs for conservation purposes. The US State Department submitted a proposal for a Ross Sea MPA at the September 2012 meeting of the CCAMLR. At this stage, a sustained campaign by various international and national NGOs commenced to accelerate the process.</p><br>
<p>In July 2013, the CCAMLR held a meeting in Bremerhaven in Germany, to decide whether to turn the Ross Sea into an MPA. The deal failed due to Russia voting against it, citing uncertainty about whether the commission had the authority to establish a marine protected area.</p><br>
<p>In October 2014, the MPA proposal was again defeated at the CCAMLR by votes against from China and Russia. At the October 2015 meeting a revised MPA proposal from the US and New Zealand was expanded with the assistance of China, who however shifted the MPA&#39;s priorities from conservation by allowing commercial fishing. The proposal was again blocked by Russia.</p><br>
<p>On 28 October 2016, at its annual meeting in Hobart, a Ross Sea marine park was finally declared by the CCAMLR, under an agreement signed by 24 countries and the European Union. It protected over 1.5 million square kilometres of sea, and was the world&#39;s largest protected area at the time.</p><br>
<p>However, a sunset provision of 35 years was inserted as part of negotiations, which means it does not meet the International Union for Conservation of Nature definition of a marine protected area, which requires it to be permanent.</p><br>
<p>Mount Erebus is the second-highest volcano in Antarctica  and the southernmost active volcano on Earth. It is the sixth highest ultra mountain on an island.</p><br>
<p>With a summit elevation of 3,794 m, it is located on Ross Island, which is also home to three inactive volcanoes, Mount Terror, Mount Bird, and Mount Terra Nova.</p><br>
<p>The volcano has been active since c. 1.3 million years ago and is the site of the Mount Erebus Volcano Observatory run by the New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology.</p><br>
<h2>Geology and volcanology</h2><br>
<p>Mount Erebus is currently the most active volcano in Antarctica and is the current eruptive zone of the Erebus hotspot. The summit contains a persistent convecting phonolitic lava lake, one of five long-lasting lava lakes on Earth. Characteristic eruptive activity consists of Strombolian eruptions from the lava lake or from one of several subsidiary vents, all within the volcano&#39;s inner crater. The volcano is scientifically remarkable in that its relatively low-level and unusually persistent eruptive activity enables long-term volcanological study of a Strombolian eruptive system very close (hundreds of metres) to the active vents, a characteristic shared with only a few volcanoes on Earth, such as Stromboli in Italy. Scientific study of the volcano is also facilitated by their proximity to McMurdo Station (USA) and Scott Base (New Zealand), both sited on Ross Island approximately thirty-five kilometres away.</p><br>
<p>Mount Erebus is classified as a polygenetic stratovolcano. The bottom half of the volcano is a shield and the top half is a stratocone. The composition of the current eruptive products of Erebus is anorthoclase-porphyritic tephritic phonolite and phonolite, which are the bulk of exposed lava flow on the volcano. The oldest eruptive products consist of relatively undifferentiated and non-viscous basanite lavas that form the low broad platform shield of Erebus. Slightly younger basanite and phonotephrite lavas crop out on Fang Ridge—an eroded remnant of an early Erebus volcano—and at other isolated locations on the flanks of Erebus. Erebus is the world&#39;s only presently erupting phonolite volcano.</p><br>
<p>Lava flows of more viscous phonotephrite and trachyte erupted after the basanite. The upper slopes of Mount Erebus are dominated by steeply dipping (~30°) tephritic phonolite lava flows with large scale flow levees. A conspicuous break in slope at approximately 3,200 metres calls attention to a summit plateau representing a caldera. The summit caldera was created by an explosive VEI-6 eruption that occurred 18,000 ± 7,000 years ago. It is filled with small volume tephritic phonolite and phonolite lava flows. In the center of the summit caldera is a small steep-sided cone composed primarily of decomposed lava bombs and a large deposit of anorthoclase crystals known as Erebus crystals. The active lava lake in this summit cone undergoes continuous degassing.</p><br>
<p>Researchers spent more than three months during the 2007–08 field season installing an unusually dense array of seismometers around Mount Erebus to listen to waves of energy generated by small, controlled blasts from explosives they buried along its flanks and perimeter and to record scattered seismic signals generated by lava lake eruptions and local ice quakes. By studying the refracted and scattered seismic waves, the scientists produced an image of the uppermost (top few km) of the volcano to understand the geometry of its "plumbing" and how the magma rises to the lava lake.</p><br>
<p>These results demonstrated a complex upper-volcano conduit system with appreciable upper-volcano magma storage to the northwest of the lava lake at depths hundreds of meters below the surface.</p><br>
<h2>Ice fumaroles</h2><br>
<p>Mt. Erebus is notable for its numerous ice fumaroles – ice towers that form around gases that escape from vents in the surface. The ice caves associated with the fumaroles are dark, in polar alpine environments starved in organics and with oxygenated hydrothermal circulation in highly reducing host rock. The life is sparse, mainly bacteria and fungi. This makes it of special interest for studying oligotrophs – organisms that can survive on minimal amounts of resources.</p><br>
<p>It is thought that ice caves may exist on Mars – ice preserved under the surface in cave systems protected from the surface conditions.</p><br>
<p>The caves on Erebus are of special interest for astrobiology as most surface caves are influenced by human activities, or by organics from the surface brought in by animals (e.g. bats) or ground water. The caves at Erebus are high altitude, yet accessible for study. There is almost no chance of photosynthetic based organics, or of animals in a food chain based on photosynthetic life, and no overlying soil to wash down into them.</p><br>
<p>They are dynamic systems that collapse and rebuild, but persist over decades. The air inside the caves has 80% to 100% humidity, and up to 3% CO2, and some CO and H2, but almost no CH4 or H2S. Many of them are completely dark, so cant support photosynthesis. Organics can only come from the atmosphere, or from ice algae that grow on the surface in summer, which may eventually find their way into the caves through burial and melting. As a result, most micro-organisms there are chemolithoautotrophic i.e. microbes that get all of their energy from chemical reactions with the rocks, and that dont depend on any other lifeforms to survive. The organisms survive using CO2 fixation and it&#39;s hypothesized that some use CO oxidization for the metabolism. The main types of microbe found there are Chloroflexi and Acidobacteria.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Discovery and naming</h3><br>
<p>Mount Erebus was discovered on January 27, 1841 (and observed to be in eruption) by polar explorer Sir James Clark Ross who named it and its companion, Mount Terror, after his ships, Erebus and Terror (which were later used by Sir John Franklin on his disastrous Arctic expedition). Erebus is a dark region in Hades in Greek mythology. Present with Ross on the Erebus was the young Joseph Hooker, future president of the Royal Society and close friend of Charles Darwin. Erebus was an Ancient Greek primordial deity of darkness, the son of Chaos.</p><br>
<h3>Historic sites</h3><br>
<p>The mountain was surveyed in December 1912 by a science party from Scott’s Terra Nova Expedition who also collected geological samples. Two of the camp sites they used have been recognised for their historic significance:</p><br>
<p>Upper “Summit Camp” site (HSM 89) consists of part of a circle of rocks, which were probably used to weight the tent valances.</p><br>
<p>Lower “Camp E” site (HSM 90) consists of a slightly elevated area of gravel as well as some aligned rocks, which may have been used to weight the tent valances.</p><br>
<p>They have been designated Historic Sites or Monuments following a proposal by the United Kingdom, New Zealand and the United States to the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting.</p><br>
<h3>Climbing</h3><br>
<p>Mount Erebus summit crater rim was first achieved by members of Sir Ernest Shackletons party; Professor Edgeworth David, Sir Douglas Mawson, Dr Alister Mackay, Jameson Adams, Dr Eric Marshall and Phillip Brocklehurst (who did not reach the summit), in 1908. Its first known solo ascent and the first winter ascent was accomplished by British mountaineer Roger Mear on 7 June 1985, a member of the "In the Footsteps of Scott" expedition. On January 19–20, 1991, Charles J. Blackmer, an iron-worker for many years at McMurdo Station and the South Pole, accomplished a solo ascent in approximately seventeen hours completely unassisted via snow mobile and on foot.</p><br>
<h3>Robotic exploration</h3><br>
<p>In 1992 the inside of the volcano was explored by Dante I, an eight legged tethered robotic explorer. Dante was designed to acquire gas samples from the magma lake inside the inner crater of Mount Erebus in order to understand the chemistry better through the use of the on-board gas chromatograph as well as measuring the temperature inside the volcano and the radioactivity of the materials present in such volcanoes. Dante successfully scaled a significant portion of the crater before technical difficulties emerged with the fibre-optic cable used for communications between the walker and base station. Unfortunately, Dante I had not yet reached the bottom of the crater and so no data of volcanic significance was</p><br>
<p>recorded. However, the expedition proved to be highly successful in terms of robotic and computer science, and was possibly the first ever expedition by a robotic platform to Antarctica.</p><br>
<h3>Air New Zealand Flight 901</h3><br>
<p>Air New Zealand Flight 901 was a scheduled sightseeing service from Auckland Airport in New Zealand to Antarctica and return with a scheduled stop at Christchurch Airport to refuel before returning to Auckland. The Air New Zealand flyover service, for the purposes of Antarctic sightseeing, was operated with McDonnell Douglas DC-10-30 aircraft and began in February 1977. The flight crashed into Mount Erebus in whiteout conditions on November 28, 1979, killing all 257 people aboard. Further investigation of the crash shows an Air New Zealand navigational error and a cover-up that resulted in about $100 million in lawsuits. Air New Zealand discontinued its flyovers of Antarctica. Its final flight was on February 17, 1980. During the Antarctic summer, snow melt on the flanks of Mount Erebus continually reveals debris from the crash; it is visible from the air.</p><br>
<h2>Image gallery</h2><br>
<p>Beerenberg is a 2,277 m stratovolcano which forms the northeastern end of the Norwegian island of Jan Mayen. It is the world&#39;s northernmost subaerial active volcano. The volcano is topped by a mostly ice-filled crater about 1 km wide, with numerous peaks along its rim including the highest summit, Haakon VII Toppen, on its western side.</p><br>
<p>The upper slopes of the volcano are largely ice-covered, with several major glaciers including five which reach the sea. The longest of the glaciers is the Weyprecht Glacier, which flows from the summit crater via a breach through the northwestern portion of the crater rim, and extends about 6 km down to the sea.</p><br>
<p>Beerenberg is composed primarily of basaltic lava flows with minor amounts of tephra. Numerous cinder cones have been formed along flank fissures.</p><br>
<p>Its most recent eruptions took place in 1985 and 1970 both of which were flank eruptions from fissures on the northeast side of the mountain. Other eruptions with historical records occurred in 1732, 1818, and 1851.</p><br>
<p>Its name means "Bear Mountain" in Dutch, and it takes its name from the polar bears seen there by Dutch whalers in the early 17th century.</p><br>
<p>The Muskingum River  is a tributary of the Ohio River, approximately 111 miles  long, in southeastern Ohio in the United States. An important commercial route in the 19th century, it flows generally southward through the eastern hill country of Ohio. Via the Ohio, it is part of the Mississippi River watershed. The river is navigable for much of its length through a series of locks and dams.</p><br>
<h2>Course</h2><br>
<p>The Muskingum is formed at Coshocton in east-central Ohio by the confluence of the Walhonding and Tuscarawas rivers. It flows in a meandering course southward past Conesville and Dresden to Zanesville, and then southeastward past South Zanesville, Philo, Gaysport, Malta, McConnelsville, Beverly, Lowell, Stockport and Devola. It joins the Ohio at Marietta.</p><br>
<p>Along its course the Muskingum collects Wills Creek near Conesville; Wakatomika Creek at Dresden; the Licking River at Zanesville; Moxahala Creek at South Zanesville; and Wolf Creek near Beverly.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The name Muskingum derives from the Shawnee word mshkikwam swampy ground, taken to mean elks eye&#39; (mus wəshkinkw) in Lenape by folk etymology. Historically, it was also the name of a large Wyandot town along the river.</p><br>
<p>Noted frontier explorer, Christopher Gist, reached the Big Sandy Creek tributary of the river on December 4, 1751. Traveling downriver, he recorded arriving on December 14 at the western Wyandot town of Muskingum, at present-day Coshocton. There he remained for the following month.</p><br>
<p>Marietta was founded in 1788 as the first permanent American settlement in the Northwest Territory, at the mouth of the Muskingum River on the Ohio River. The Big Bottom Massacre occurred along its banks in 1791.</p><br>
<p>Zanesville was settled by European Americans in 1799 at the site where Zane&#39;s Trace crossed the Muskingum at the mouth of the Licking River. In the mid-19th century the Muskingum was an important commercial shipping route, with dams and locks controlling the water level to allow boats to travel up and down the river. With the decrease in use of water-based transportation in Ohio by the 1920s, the locks fell into disrepair.</p><br>
<p>Since the 1960s, the locks have been repaired to enable pleasure craft to travel the entire navigable length of the river. The Muskingum waterway is one of the few remaining systems in the US to use hand-operated river locks. The navigation system has been designated a national Historic Civil Engineering Landmark. In 2006, it was designated "An Ohio Water Trail;" this designation provides for increased canoe access on the river.</p><br>
<p>Located north of the Mason–Dixon line, from around 1812 to 1861 the Muskingum River was a major Underground Railroad route used by fugitive slaves escaping from the South on their journey north to Lake Erie and Canada.</p><br>
<h2>Nonprofit organizations</h2><br>
<p>The Friends of the Lower Muskingum River is a 501 (c) (3) nonprofit land trust based in Marietta, Ohio, concerned with protection of the Muskingum River and adjacent lands. In addition, the Muskingum River Conservation District is a quasi-governmental entity concerned with flood control on the river.</p><br>
<h2>Variant names</h2><br>
<p>According to the Geographic Names Information System, the Muskingum River has also been known as:</p><br>
<p>Big Muskingum River</p><br>
<p>Elk River</p><br>
<p>Mouskindom River</p><br>
<p>Mushkingum River</p><br>
<p>Muskingham River</p><br>
<p>Riviere Chiagnez</p><br>
<p>The Thuringian Forest , is a mountain range in the southern parts of the German state of Thuringia, running northwest to southeast between the valley of the river Werra near Eisenach and the Thuringian-Vogtlandian Slate Mountains. The geographical boundary with the latter range follows approximately a line from Gehren via Großbreitenbach to Schönbrunn near Schleusingen, defined by the rivers Schleuse and Neubrunn on the southwestern slope, and Talwasser, Wohlrose and Möhre on the northeastern slope.</p><br>
<h2>Geography and communications</h2><br>
<p>The Thuringian Forest forms a continuous chain of ancient rounded mountains with steep slopes to both sides and poses ample difficulties in transit routing save through a few navigable passes. It is about 70 km long and 20 km wide. The highest elevation is Großer Beerberg at 982 m a.s.l.</p><br>
<p>The Rennsteig (sometimes called Rennweg) is an ancient path following the main ridge and connecting the summits. It is now a famous hiking path and marks the traditional boundary between the hills-dominated terrain of central Germany and the more rugged terrain characteristic of southern Germany, and also the boundary between the cultural regions of central and north Thuringia and Franconia. Dialects and traditional customs and costumes are different on either side of the Rennsteig. The Rennsteig is the subject of the song Rennsteiglied (de), the unofficial hymn of Thuringia.</p><br>
<p>Motorway A 4 passes north of the Thuringian Forest, while A 71, intersecting the former south of Erfurt, crosses the range from the northeast to the southwest, passes under the ridge in the Rennsteig Tunnel near Oberhof, and is joined near Suhl by A 73. Two more long-distance roads, Bundesstraßen 19 and 84, pass over the western parts of the range, while Bundesstraße 88 skirts the northern foothills between Eisenach and Geraberg.</p><br>
<p>The Neudietendorf–Ritschenhausen railway crosses the Thuringian Forest in Brandleite Tunnel between Gehlberg and Oberhof, the Werra Railway between Eisenach and Eisfeld does so in a tunnel near Förtha. Both are in daily operation. A third line, the southern section of the Plaue–Themar railway, does not use a tunnel, but crosses the mountain ridge at Rennsteig switchback station. It has only been used by museum trains since 1998. The Nuremberg–Erfurt high-speed railway, due to be commissioned in December 2017, crosses the Thuringian Forest with the help of several tunnels and bridges.</p><br>
<p>Thüringerwaldbahn, a cross-country line of the Gotha tramway network, serves the northern foothills of the Thuringian Forest between Gotha and Bad Tabarz, including a branch to Waltershausen.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<h3>Overview</h3><br>
<p>Geologically, the Thuringian Forest is defined by a belt of strongly uplifted and deformed metamorphic and igneous rock that divides the relatively flat sedimentary plains of the Thüringer Becken (to the northeast) from similar rock formations in the valley of the Werra (to the southwest). It consists of a large fault block in hercynian orientation, which consists from sandstones and conglomerates of Rotliegend age in its western parts (Eisenach trough), followed by granites and gneisses of the Ruhlaer Kristallin formation of early paleozoic origin which were uplifted in the Rotliegend era, and the conglomerates, sandstones, and abundant volcanic rocks (rhyolites and andesites) of the Oberhof trough. Ore deposits associated with the upthrust of the range have been of significant historical importance in the development of the region, for example, the metalworking tradition in Suhl and the mining history of Ilmenau.</p><br>
<p>The uplift of the horst-like fault block was part of the Saxonian tectonic processes and is understood as a long range effect of the Alpine orogeny. It began in the upper Cretaceous era and ended in the late Tertiary after about 40 million years.</p><br>
<p>Thuringian forest is surrounded on three sides by triassic rocks: the Thuringian Basin in the northeast, the Hesse Highlands in the west, and the northeastern parts of the South German Scarplands in the south, and by the Variscan rocks of the Thuringian Highland towards the east. The geological borders differ from the geographical ones insofar, as the Rotliegend rock of the Thuringian forest finds its continuation in the Masserberg and Crock block in Hildburghausen district, southeast of the main range, and the rock types of the Thuringian Highland are also found in the Schleuse horst between Schönbrunn reservoir and Schönau, and in the Vesser complex near Schmiedefeld, an island of Variscan rocks embedded in Rotliegend. While the near-surface rocks of the Thuringian Highland comprise mostly the folded Variscan basement, the oldest unfolded overlying strata (dating from the Permosilesian age) of this basement are exposed in the Thuringian forest. Common to both ranges, but also to other low mountain ranges in Central Europe uplifted at the same time, are the bordering Zechstein deposits which contain Bryozoa reefs. These stretch especially wide on the northwestern edge of the Thuringian forest, where the landscape park of Altenstein Palace is located on one of the largest Zechstein reefs in Germany.</p><br>
<h3>Eisenach trough</h3><br>
<p>The Eisenach trough is part of the much larger Werra basin, which in turn is part of the Saar-Unstrut depression of early Permian origin. It was uplifted as one of the fault blocks in the Saxonian tectonic era and is filled with Variscan molasses, named Eisenach formation after the location. It consists mostly of monotonous sequences of reddish conglomerates representing a proximal alluvial fan which originated in debris flows from the Ruhla anticline. Dated in the upper Rotliegend, the Eisenach formation consists of some of the youngest geological units in the Thuringian forest. The lack of volcanic rocks suggests that at the time of the deposition of the Eisenach formation, no significant tectonic prosesses took place in the Werra basin which was by then a mostly consolidated depositional environment.</p><br>
<h3>Ruhla anticline</h3><br>
<p>In the Ruhla anticline the basement rocks, folded in the Variscan era, are exposed. They are named Ruhlaer Kristallin after the location and are according to Franz Kossmat considered part of the Central German Crystalline Zone, of which Odenwald and Spessart are also constituents. In the Rotliegend era the region formed the crest of a mountain range where the debris originated that was deposited in the Eisenach trough and the northwestern part of the Oberhof trough.</p><br>
<p>The sedimentary, volcano-sedimentary, and magmatic rocks which were deposited or formed in the area from the Cambrian until the upper Devonian were subjected to intense metamorphosis during the Variscan uplift and are now mostly present in the form of gneiss or schist.</p><br>
<h3>Oberhof trough</h3><br>
<p>The Oberhof trough is by far the largest of the main geologic parts of the Thuringian Forest. It consists of the uplifted part of the so-called Thuringian Forest Basin whose contents can be further subdivided into several formations. Their relative ages have not been fully resolved yet, partly because the Oberhof trough had been a rift zone with intense tectonics and continual changes of the internal relief and of the main areas of deposition. The tectonic processes were accompanied by an intense felsitic volcanism which was the origin of many volcanic rock formations, predominantly rhyolites of porphyric structure with accompanying tuff deposits. These volcanic rocks alternate in sequence with the typical reddish molasse sediments (conglomerates, sandstones, siltstones, and claystones) of the Rotliegend.</p><br>
<h3>Little Thuringian Forest</h3><br>
<p>The Little Thuringian Forest (German: Kleiner Thüringer Wald) is a narrow horst south of Suhl and northwest of Schleusingen, northwest of Schleuse river, embedded in the Triassic foothills of Southern Thuringia. It is oriented roughly parallel to the Thuringian Forest and, while a separate structure, is geologically very similar to the latter, as it consists of the same rock types such as granite, hornfels, porphyrites, Rotliegend and Zechstein sediments, and thus forms part of the Variscan chain. It is about 11 km long and 1 km to 2 km wide, with an average altitude of 460 m. Mining for fluorite, baryte, and limonite has been attempted there on several occasions, but was given up as unprofitable due to difficult drainage. Large baryte deposits prospected in the 1950s have remained untouched.</p><br>
<h3>Waltershausen Foothills</h3><br>
<p>The Waltershausen foothills (German: Waltershäuser Vorberge) are a wooded chain of Buntsandstein hills immediately north of and parallel to the Thuringian Forest between Eisenach, Waltershausen, Friedrichroda, and Georgenthal. An outcrop of Muschelkalk rock can be found in their northern part, south of Waltershausen. They are generally regarded a part of the Thuringian Basin, but with numerous deeply eroded river valleys and the dense forestation they resemble very much the Thuringian Forest.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>The Thuringian Forest is located in the Central European transition zone between the Atlantic oceanic climate and the continental climate of Eastern Europe. Humid air arrives mainly from the west, so that the western slopes and the crest of the chain experience the highest levels of precipitation. While the exception of the northwestern part with its lower altitudes (650 mm), the yearly precipitation reaches about 1000 mm, in the higher parts up to about 1300 mm. In contrast, the leeward Thuringian Basin is one of the driest regions in Germany with only around 460 mm to 590 mm of precipitation per year. As the Thuringian Forest forms a barrier to the main weather currents, erosion is strong and has led to a more pronounced relief than in many other of the European low mountain chains.</p><br>
<p>The mean temperatures decrease with altitude:</p><br>
<p>While the Thuringian Basin experiences less than 100 days per year with temperatures below 0 °C, this number rises to more than 150 in the upper altitudes of the Thuringian Forest.</p><br>
<h2>Natural regions</h2><br>
<h3>Northwest Thuringian Forest</h3><br>
<p>The Northwest Thuringian Forest comprises an area of about 70 km² reaching heights up to 470 m, hardly exceeding those of the adjacent Buntsandstein forelands to the southwest, but exhibiting a much more pronounced relief. It stretches until Moosbach stream, a tributary or Erbstrom river, in the north east, and to Bundesstraße 19 in the east and south, which follows the upper reaches of Elte river between the villages of Wilhelmsthal and Etterwinden. The predominant rock species is Eisenacher Rotliegend, namely conglomerates and sandstones. The area is known for the so-called Drachenschlucht, a narrow gorge near Eisenach, and the Wartburg castle. The northern part of the area is drained by several streams into the Hörsel, the southern part into the Elte. Hence, the ridge of the Northwestern Thuringian Forest only forms the watershed between Hörsel and the middle course of the Werra.</p><br>
<p>Notable summits include:</p><br>
<p>Großer Drachenstein (470 m)</p><br>
<p>Wartberg (about 390 m, north of the main ridge), site of Wartburg castle</p><br>
<p>The much larger natural region of Central Thuringian Forest with an area of about 850 km², whose ridge rises mostly above 600 m, is subdivided into several parts described below in their sequence from the north-west to the south-east.</p><br>
<h3>Ruhla Thuringian Forest</h3><br>
<p>This part, situated around the town of Ruhla north of the Rennsteig, is geologically formed by the basement rocks of the Ruhlaer Kristallin, consisting of granites, gneiss, and schist. There is no pronounced ridge, summits on both sides of the watershed reach heights of 700 m or more. Its northeastern parts drain towards the Hörsel, the southwestern parts towards the middle course of the Werra. The area is limited towards the south-east by state road 1027 between Schwarzhausen and Bad Liebenstein.</p><br>
<p>Notable summits include:</p><br>
<p>Birkenheide (717 m, immediately south of Rennsteig)</p><br>
<p>Glöckner (702 m)</p><br>
<p>Windsberg (671 m), foothill of Birkenheide and site of Altenstein castle</p><br>
<p>Ringberg (639 m) with Alexanderturm (observation tower)</p><br>
<h3>Brotterode Thuringian Forest</h3><br>
<p>Reaching until Tambach-Dietharz, the part of Thuringian forest around the town of Brotterode is geologically more heterogeneous than the region around Ruhla. State road 1026 between Friedrichroda and Floh-Seligenthal which follows the valleys of the rivers Schilfwasser and Schmalkalde and passes through Kleinschmalkalden and state road 1028 between Georgenthal and Floh-Seligenthal which follows the valleys of the rivers Apfelstädt and Flohbach divide the area into segments. In this area the mountain ridge becomes more pronounced. The summit of Großer Inselsberg of volcanic origin causes a marked shift of the ridge towards the north. South of Georgenthal, the mountain range becomes the watershed between Elbe and Weser.</p><br>
<p>Notable summits include:</p><br>
<p>Großer Inselsberg (916.5 m) between Brotterode and Tabarz, popular tourist destination</p><br>
<p>Großer Weißenberg (747 m), location of a tripoint between the former countries of Saxe-Meiningen, Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, and Kurhessen and of today&#39;s districts Gotha, Schmalkalden-Meiningen, and Wartburgkreis.</p><br>
<p>Gerberstein (728 m) with an outlook platform</p><br>
<h3>Tambach-Oberhof Thuringian Forest</h3><br>
<p>The B 247 from Luisenthal via Oberhof and Zella-Mehlis to Suhl, which follows the Ohra to the north, a section along the Lichtenau to the south and finally the lower reaches of the Mühlwasser, together with the slightly more than 10 km long L 1028 road that runs parallel to it to the northwest separates this natural sub-division of the Thuringian Forest from the rest. Apart from the south, this region is traversed by very few public roads and is only populated in the south – in the villages of Schnellbach and Struth-Helmershof in the municipality of Floh-Seligenthal, the Rotterode, Unterschönau and Oberschönau suburbs of Steinbach-Hallenberg and the town of Zella-Mehlis.</p><br>
<p>The Elbe-Weser watershed, accompanied by the Rennsteig, reaches heights of around at several places southwest to west of Oberhof, but does not really form any individual mountains and has very much the character of a mountain crest. By contrast, the Großer Hermannsberg and Ruppberg (see below) that rise to the southwest of the ridge are better known and popular tourist destinations. To the northeast, where the terrain gradually flattens out, are two of the 3 largest reservoirs in the Thuringian Forest (see below). The best known rock formation in the mountain range, the Falkenstein, is also found in this area.</p><br>
<p>Notable summits include:</p><br>
<p>Schützenberg (, main crest southwest of Oberhof)</p><br>
<p>Greifenberg (, main crest west of Oberhof)</p><br>
<p>Gebrannter Stein (, south of the Rennsteig, north of Zella-Mehlis) with remarkable cliffs</p><br>
<p>Großer Hermannsberg (, southwest flank) - local mountain for Steinbach-Hallenberg, with observation tower</p><br>
<p>Ruppberg (, southwest flank) - local mountain (northwest) for Zella-Mehlis, with observation tower</p><br>
<h4>Rivers and lakes</h4><br>
<p>The northeastern flank of the mountains is drained by right tributaries of the Apfelstädt, especially the Schmalwasser, and left tributaries of the Ohra, notably the Kernwasser, via the (Apfelstädt,) Gera and Unstrut into the Saale. The Apfelstädt is impounded by the Tambach-Dietharz Dam into a small lake and the Schmalwasser and Ohra by the Schmalwasser and Ohra Dams into larger reservoirs.</p><br>
<p>The south is drained by the Asbach which flows via the Stille into the Schmalkalde and by rivers and streams belonging to the fan-like system of tributaries of Hasel (Werra), in particular the Schwarza, Häselbach, Lichtenau and a stream from Albrechts, feeding into the Werra.</p><br>
<h3>Gehlberg Thuringian Forest</h3><br>
<p>This region between federal roads B 4 between Ilmenau and Stützerbach, following the rivers Ilm, Lengwitz, and Nahe, and B 247 between Luisenthal and Suhl contains the three highest summits as well as the fifth highest summit of the whole range. The only settlements wholly within this region are Gehlberg north of Rennsteig and Vesser south of it. Parts of Schmiedefeld and Goldlauter-Heidersbach (part of Suhl) also extend into this part of the Forest. The highest summits crowning the mountain ridge are of volcanic origin. The terrain dips rapidly down to heights below 800 m towards the north-east, while heights remain above this altitude south-west of Rennsteig for some distance in the horseshoe-shaped Adlersberg massif.</p><br>
<p>Motorway A 71 and the Neudietendorf–Ritschenhausen railway pass under the Brandleite Massif between Gehlberg and Oberhof in Rennsteig road tunnel and Brandleite Tunnel.</p><br>
<p>The area is drained towards the north by the river Lütsche which feeds the Lütsche reservoir and by Wilde Gera and Zahme Gera towards Gera river and Unstrut, and by Freibach stream, a tributary of Ilm river, and towards the south by Lauter, a tributary of Hasel, and mainly by Erle, feeding the Erle reservoir, Breitenbach, Vesser, and Nahe into Schleuse.</p><br>
<p>Notable summits include:</p><br>
<p>Großer Beerberg (, main crest 3,4 km east of Zella-Mehlis, highest elevation in the Thuringian Forest)</p><br>
<p>Schneekopf (978 m), transmitter site and observation tower</p><br>
<p>Großer Finsterberg (944 m), with observation tower</p><br>
<p>Großer Eisenberg (907 m), whose name bears witness to ore mining activities in the past</p><br>
<p>Adlersberg massive (up to 892 m) with Ringberghaus hotel on Ringberg (746 m), a northwestern foothill</p><br>
<h3>Frauenwald-Neustadt Thuringian Forest</h3><br>
<p>The region around Frauenwald and Neustadt forms the most south-eastern part of the Thuringian forest proper. It is limited by state road B 4 in the northwest, and by a line along the rivers Talwasser (with Ilmsenbach), Neubrunn, and Schleuse. The adjacent Thuringian Slate Mountains form a geographically and geologically separate natural region, although they are often popularly referred to as a continuation of the former range. Populated places wholly within the region are Frauenwald, Allzunah, Neustadt am Rennsteig, and Oehrenstock. Parts of Stützerbach also reach into this area. Roads follow the Rennsteig, the mountain crests, or the valleys of the rivers.</p><br>
<p>The main ridge of the mountain range exceeds altitudes of 800 m in several places. The highest and best known summit is Kickelhahn (861 m a.s.l.) southwest of Ilmenau. As seen from there, all secondary crests towards the northeast and the southwest clearly originate from the main one and show even and gentle slopes, not counting the steep descent into the foreland. The southwestern crests reach altitudes of about 800 m. The dividing valleys are often narrow gorges.</p><br>
<p>The area is drained towards the northeast by the fan of the Ilm tributaries towards the Saale river, towards the southwest by Nahe, Trenkbach, Schleuse, Gabel, Tanne, and tributaries of Neubrunn towards the Werra. Schleuse, Gabel, and Tanne feed the large Schönbrunn reservoir.</p><br>
<p>Notable summits include:</p><br>
<p>Kickelhahn (861 m) with observation tower, "backyard mountain" of Ilmenau</p><br>
<p>Großer Dreiherrnstein (838 m), 500 m from the tripoint of the former countries Schwarzburg-Arnstadt, Saxe-Eisenach, and Henneberg</p><br>
<p>Großer Hundskopf (824 m) with a transmitter site on its foothill Kalter Staudenkopf (768 m)</p><br>
<h2>Tourism and sights</h2><br>
<p>Due to its geographical characteristics and the favourable climate, the Thuringian Forest is an important year-round tourist destination. Winter sports play an important role, facilities of international significance are concentrated around Oberhof. Famous sights include Wartburg Castle outside Eisenach where Martin Luther lived in exile, the selenite cave (Marienglashöhle, a former mine) near Friedrichroda, the firearms museum in Suhl, and the historic town centres of Eisenach and Ilmenau. The Rennsteig trail is the most popular long-distance hiking trail in Germany and shares its route with the long-distance mountain hiking path Eisenach–Budapest, the E3 European long distance path, the Thüringen-Rhein-Wanderweg, and partly with the pilgrims&#39; way Via Porta between Volkenroda Abbey and Waldsassen Abbey.</p><br>
<p>Mont Ventoux  is a mountain in the Provence region of southern France, located some 20 km northeast of Carpentras, Vaucluse. On the north side, the mountain borders the Drôme département. At 1,912m, it is the highest mountain in the region and has been nicknamed the "Beast of Provence", the "Giant of Provence", or "The Bald Mountain". It has gained fame through its inclusion in the Tour de France cycling race; in 2009 it was the scene of the first penultimate-day mountain top finish in the Tour de France, with Alberto Contador sealing his yellow jersey.</p><br>
<p>As the name might suggest (venteux means windy in French), it can get windy at the summit, especially with the mistral; wind speeds as high as 320 km/h (200 mph) have been recorded. The wind blows at 90+ km/h (56+ mph) 240 days a year. The road over the mountain is often closed due to high winds, especially the "col des tempêtes" ("storm pass") just before the summit, which is known for its strong winds. The real origins of the name are thought to trace back to the 1st or 2nd century AD, when it was named Vintur after a Gaulish god of the summits, or Ven-Top, meaning "snowy peak" in the ancient Gallic language. In the 10th century, the names Mons Ventosus and Mons Ventorius appear.</p><br>
<p>Mont Ventoux, although geologically part of the Alps, is often considered to be separate from them, due to the lack of mountains of a similar height nearby. It stands alone to the north of the Luberon range, separated by the Monts de Vaucluse, and just to the east of the Dentelles de Montmirail, its foothills. The top of the mountain is bare limestone without vegetation or trees, which makes the mountain&#39;s barren peak appear from a distance to be snow-capped all year round (its snow cover actually lasts from December to April). Its isolated position overlooking the valley of the Rhône ensures that it dominates the entire region and can be seen from many miles away on a clear day.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Whilst the hill was probably climbed in prehistoric times, the first recorded ascent was by Jean Buridan, who on his way to the papal court in Avignon before the year 1334, climbed Mont. Ventoux "in order to make some meteorological observations". The Italian poet Petrarch wrote a possibly fictional account of an ascent accompanied by his brother on 26 April 1336, in his Ascent of Mont Ventoux. In the 15th century, a chapel was constructed on the top and dedicated to the Holy Cross.</p><br>
<p>In 1882, a meteorological station was constructed on the summit, though it is no longer in use. This observatory was planned in 1879, along with a carriage road for access. In the 1960s a 50m-high telecommunications mast was built.</p><br>
<p>From 1902 to 1976 the Mont Ventoux Hill Climb for car and motorcycle took place on the roads of the Mont.</p><br>
<h2>Flora and fauna</h2><br>
<p>Originally forested, Mont Ventoux was systematically stripped of trees from the 12th century onwards to serve the demands of the shipbuilders of the naval port of Toulon. Some areas have been reforested since 1860 with a variety of hardwood trees (such as holm oaks and beeches) as well as coniferous species, such as Atlas cedars and larches. A little higher, junipers are common.</p><br>
<p>The mountain comprises the species boundary or ecotone between the flora and fauna of northern and southern France. Some species, including various types of spiders and butterflies, are unique to Mont Ventoux. It is a good place to spot the short-toed eagle (Circaetus gallicus).</p><br>
<p>Its biological distinctiveness was recognised by UNESCO in 1990 when the Réserve de Biosphère du Mont Ventoux was created, protecting an area of 810 square kilometres (200,150 acres) on and around the mountain.</p><br>
<h2>Road cycling</h2><br>
<p>For road bicycle racing enthusiasts, the mountain can be climbed by three routes.</p><br>
<p>South from Bédoin: 1617 m over 21,8 km. This is the most famous and difficult ascent. The road to the summit has an average gradient of 7.43%. Until Saint-Estève, the climb is easy: 3.9% over 5,8 km, but the 16 remaining kilometres have an average gradient of 8.9%. To serve as a comparison the climb of LAlpe dHuez is about 13.8 km at an average gradient of 7.9%. The last kilometres may have strong, violent winds. The ride takes 1h30m-2h30m for trained amateur riders. Professional riders take 1h-1h15 min. The fastest time so far recorded has been that of Iban Mayo in the individual climbing time trial of the 2004 Dauphiné Libéré: 55 51". The time was measured from Bédoin for the first time in the 1958 Tour de France, in which Charly Gaul was the fastest at 1h 2 9".</p><br>
<p>Northwest from Malaucène: 1570 m over 21,5 km. About equal in difficulty as the Bédoin ascent, but better sheltered against the wind.</p><br>
<p>East from Sault: 1210 m over 26 km. The easiest route. After Chalet Reynard (where the "lunar landscape" of the summit starts), the climb is the same as the Bédoin ascent. Average gradient of 4.4%.</p><br>
<p>Every year there are amateur races to climb the mountain as quickly and often as possible in 24 hours, the Ventoux Masterseries and "Les Cinglés du Mont Ventoux". On 16 May 2006, Jean-Pascal Roux from Bédoin broke the record of climbs in 24 hours, with eleven climbs, all of them from Bédoin.</p><br>
<h3>Tour de France</h3><br>
<p>Mont Ventoux has become legendary as the scene of one of the most grueling climbs in the Tour de France bicycle race, which has ascended the mountain fifteen times since 1951. The followed trail mostly passes through Bédoin. Its fame as a scene of great Tour dramas has made it a magnet for cyclists around the world.</p><br>
<p>The mountain achieved worldwide notoriety when it claimed the life of British cyclist Tom Simpson, who died here on 13 July 1967 from heat exhaustion caused by a combination of factors, including dehydration (caused by lack of fluid intake and diarrhea), amphetamines, and alcohol, although there is still speculation as to the exact cause of his death. He began to wildly weave across the road before he fell down. He was delirious and asked spectators to put him back on the bike, which he rode to within a half mile of the summit before collapsing dead, still clipped into his pedals. Amphetamines were found in his jersey and bloodstream. There is a memorial to Simpson near the summit, which has become a shrine to fans of cycling, who often leave small tokens of remembrance there. In 1970, Eddy Merckx rode himself to the brink of collapse while winning the stage. He received oxygen, recovered, and won the Tour. In 1994, Eros Poli, not known for his climbing ability, stole away at the beginning of the day&#39;s stage, built up a substantial time gap from the peloton, and was first over the Ventoux and eventual stage winner despite losing a minute of his lead per kilometre of the ascent.</p><br>
<h3>Tour de France stage finishes</h3><br>
<p>The race has finished at the summit of Mont Ventoux ten times. The finish line is at 1909 m, although in 1965, 1967, 1972 and 1974 the finish was lower, at 1895 m.</p><br>
<p>In September 2008, it was announced by Claude Haut, the president of the Vaucluse province, that in 2009 the Tour de France would visit Mont Ventoux after a seven-year absence. Unusually, the riders climbed the "Giant of Provence" on the second-to-last day of the race, on 25 July 2009, prior to transferring to Paris for the traditional parade on the Champs-Élysées. It was next featured in the 100th Tour de France in 2013 on Stage 15.</p><br>
<p>In 2016, the stage to Mont Ventoux was shortened by 6 km the day before, after a weather forecast of high winds at the summit. The stage then finished at Chalet Reynard at 1,435 m, with approximately 10 km of ascent up the mountain. This stage also featured a memorable motorcycle-induced crash which damaged Chris Froome&#39;s bike, prompting him to jog some hundred metres up the mountain until he was able to get a neutral service bike (as his team car was too far back at the time), which did not fit him properly.</p><br>
<h3>Other appearances in Tour de France</h3><br>
<p>The race has also crossed the summit six times.</p><br>
<p>In 1951, the approach to the summit was from Malaucène. In all other years, the approach has been from Bédoin</p><br>
<h3>The climb from Bédoin to the Mont Ventoux</h3><br>
<p>The climb by bike from Bédoin to Mont Ventoux is one of the toughest in professional cycling. Every climb has its own unique particulars. To get a detailed impression of this climb, the route has been measured accurately.</p><br>
<p>The figure for the average gradients per kilometre can be found in many books and websites on cycling. The average gradient of the total climb and also the average gradients per kilometre differ slightly, depending on the source of the information. Accurate measurements result in an average gradient for the total climb of 7.43%, based on a horizontal distance of 21,765 metres and an ascent height of 1,617 metres. The actual distance ridden is 21,825 metres.</p><br>
<p>The average gradients per kilometre are as follows:</p><br>
<h3>Transcontinental Race</h3><br>
<p>Mont Ventoux was used as the first checkpoint in the 2015 Transcontinental Race, which is a non-stop, unsupported bicycle race across Europe.</p><br>
<h3>Cycle tourists</h3><br>
<p>For loaded cycle tourists, the Ventoux presents a particular challenge and each of the three available routes has its advantages and disadvantages. The long route from Sault at 26 km and only just over 1200m of climbing is seen as the easiest. However the long +/- 5% run-in can be draining and is then followed by the same last 5 km steep section as the more traditional TDF route from Bédoin. The route from Bédoin is the least suitable for cycle tourists. The climb for the first 15 km is very narrow and twisty, and cycle tourists climbing at under 5 mph will find themselves battling with traffic in both directions and dodging descending racing cyclists topping 50 mph in the other direction. The last part of this (and the Sault route which follows the same last 5 km) is also very exposed to the elements.</p><br>
<p>The climb from Malaucène is in theory at least as difficult as the Bédoin route with some very steep sections up to 12%+, but these sections are followed by much easier parts of 2-5% which allow a touring cyclist to rest in a way a racing cyclist would not but very low gearing is essential. In addition the road is wide for most of the climb, well surfaced and with a marked cycling lane at the side and therefore much safer than the Bédoin climb. Lastly for cyclecampers there is a small campsite at around 1400m which can be used to break the climb.</p><br>
<p>The descent to Bédoin can be hazardous — narrow, bumpy and carrying heavy traffic on weekends, including racing cyclists. Sault is much more gentle after Chalet Reynard, where it leaves the Bédoin route, and extremely pretty. The Malaucène descent has very steep sections, but good surfaces and traffic are not an issue, as the road is wide with good sight-lines and superb views.</p><br>
<h2>Skiing</h2><br>
<p>There are two small skiing facilities: one on the northern face of Ventoux and another (The smallest) on the southern face.</p><br>
<p>The northern face&#39;s skiing resort is called "Mount Serein".</p><br>
<p>The southern face&#39;s skiing resort is called "Chalet Reynard".</p><br>
<p>High winds and the modest elevation tend to limit the amount of time when this is open to the public. Due to high winds, the northern face is full of huge icy patch, people of the Avignon area and neighbourhood of Mount Ventoux even have a motto describing the difficulty of skiing on the Ventoux: Qui ski au Ventoux, ski partout. The ones who ski in Mount Ventoux, are the ones who can ski everywhere.</p><br>
<p>Amager  in the Øresund is Denmarks most densely populated island with almost 200,000 inhabitants on the small appendix to Zealand. The protected natural area of Naturpark Amager  makes up more than one-third of the islands total area of 96 km.</p><br>
<p>The Danish capital, Copenhagen, is partly situated on Amager, which is connected to the much larger island of Zealand by eight bridges and a metro tunnel. Amager also has a connection across the Øresund to Sweden, the Øresund Bridge. Its western part begins with a tunnel from Amager to another Danish island, Peberholm. Copenhagen Airport is located on the island, around 7 km from Copenhagen city centre.</p><br>
<p>Amager is the largest island in the Øresund, and the only one with a large population., 196,045 people live on the island, including its northern tip, Christianshavn. The northern part is included in the Copenhagen municipality. The middle part comprises Tårnby municipality, and Dragør municipality is located on the southeast part of the island.</p><br>
<p>Most of the western part is land that was reclaimed from the sea from the 1930s-1950s. This enlargement, from the shallow sound towards Zealand, is known as Kalveboderne. The enlargement has never been built-up and its soil isnt suitable for agricultural use. However the area between Dragør town and the airport is cultivated land of high quality. Amager has in the past been referred to as the "kitchen of Copenhagen". At the border of the enlargement there is an old beech forest, Kongelunden (The Kings Grove).</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Amager has long been populated, and well used, thanks to its rich soil and proximity to Copenhagen. In 1521, Christian II invited some Dutch farmers to move to Amager and grow vegetables to supply the Danish Court and Copenhagen. It was only in the late 19th century that Copenhagen began to expand onto the island (Sundbyerne), and in 1902 these built-up areas were incorporated into Copenhagen.</p><br>
<p>During the Second World War, high unemployment in Copenhagen led authorities to drain a large part of the sea, west of the island, and build a dam to hold out the water, effectively adding one half of Amager&#39;s previous area to the island.</p><br>
<p>The reclaimed area is currently known as Kalvebod Fælled, and was originally a military area, but today it is part of a major construction area called the Ørestad, being thought of as an extension to central Copenhagen. The area houses such major facilities as the Bella Center, a convention and exposition center, and Field&#39;s, the second-largest shopping center in Scandinavia. This project was initiated by the Danish government.</p><br>
<p>The beach area to the east of the island, known as Amager Strandpark (Amager Beach Park), which had fallen into disrepair since its inception in the 1930s, was extensively redeveloped between May 2004 and August 2005. A 2-km-long artificial island was constructed just off the mainland, from which it is separated by a small lagoon.</p><br>
<p>Until the 1970s, Amager was used as a place to dump litter; this led to a slang term for the island Lorteøen (Shit Island). See Renholdningsselskabet af 1898.</p><br>
<h2>Amenities</h2><br>
<p>Large parts of Kalvebod Fælled are rich in nature and have many grazing cows and horses. This area allows the citizens of Copenhagen to experience nature, without travelling far from the city.</p><br>
<p>Amager is also home to the Amager Bio, a cinema, concert and cultural venue. Top bands from the last 40 years have played there, both those of international origin (Prince, Aimee Mann, Uriah Heep, King Crimson, Cradle of Filth, John Mayall and the Bluesbreakers, Jethro Tull, The Moody Blues, MGMT, Nas, Andrew Bird) and from Denmark (D.A.D, Dodo and the Dodos, Johnny Deluxe, Big Fat Snake).</p><br>
<h2>Communities</h2><br>
<p>Various communities are located on Amager, including Islands Brygge, and the towns of Dragør, Kastrup, and Tårnby.</p><br>
<h2>Transport</h2><br>
<p>Amager is connected by tunnel to the artificial island Peberholm from which Øresund Bridge connects Denmark to Sweden. The construction of the bridge has had a significant impact on the physical geography of the island, largely due to the construction of new highways.</p><br>
<p>The Copenhagen Metro connects Amager to central Copenhagen. The metro line from Vanløse to Amager divides into M1 and M2 lines at Christianshavn and then continue to Vestamager and Lufthavnen (Copenhagen Airport).</p><br>
<p>Copenhagen Airport is in the eastern part of Amager. It is linked by train, metro and bus services.</p><br>
<h2>Notable people</h2><br>
<p>Frank Arnesen</p><br>
<p>Martin Bernburg</p><br>
<p>Brian Holm</p><br>
<p>Sonny Fredie Pedersen</p><br>
<p>Peter Frödin</p><br>
<p>Mikkel Kessler</p><br>
<p>Linse Kessler</p><br>
<p>Stephanie Kessler</p><br>
<p>Klaus Rifbjerg</p><br>
<p>Joey Moe</p><br>
<p>Christopher (singer)</p><br>
<p>Nicklas Bendtner</p><br>
<p>The Chao Phraya  is the major river in Thailand, with its low alluvial plain forming the centre of the country. It flows through Bangkok and then into the Gulf of Thailand.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>On many old European maps, the river is named Menam or Mae Nam (Thai: แม่น้ำ), Thai for "river". James McCarthy, F.R.G.S., who served as Director-General of the Siamese Government Surveys prior to establishment of the Royal Survey Department, wrote in his account, "Me Nam is a generic term, me signifying "mother" and Nam "water," and the epithet Chao P&#39;ia signifies that it is the chief river in the kingdom of Siam."</p><br>
<p>H. Warington Smyth, who served as Director of the Department of Mines in Siam from 1891 to 1896, refers to it in his book first published in 1898 as "the Me Nam Chao Phraya".</p><br>
<p>In the English-language media in Thailand, the name Chao Phraya River is often translated as river of kings.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The Chao Phraya begins at the confluence of the Ping and Nan rivers at Nakhon Sawan (also called Pak Nam Pho) in Nakhon Sawan Province. After this it flows south for 372 km from the central plains to Bangkok and the Gulf of Thailand. In Chai Nat, the river then splits into the main course and the Tha Chin River, which then flows parallel to the main river and exits in the Gulf of Thailand about 35 km west of Bangkok in Samut Sakhon. In the low alluvial plain which begins below the Chainat Dam, there are many small canals (khlong) which split off from the main river. The khlongs are used for the irrigation of the region&#39;s rice paddies.</p><br>
<p>The rough coordinates of the river are 13 N, 100 E. This area has a wet monsoon climate, with over 1,400 mm of rainfall per year. Temperatures range from 24 to 33 C in Bangkok.</p><br>
<h3>River engineering</h3><br>
<p>The lower Chao Phraya underwent several man-made modifications during the Ayutthaya period. Several shortcut canals were constructed to bypass large loops in the river, shortening the trip from the capital city to the sea. The course of the river has since changed to follow many of these canals.</p><br>
<p>In 1538, Thailand&#39;s first river engineering of a 3 km long canal was dug at the order of King Chairachathirat. It was called "khlong lat", today known as Khlong Bangkok Noi. It shortened the route by 13–14 km for ships from the Gulf of Siam to the then-capital city, Ayutthaya.</p><br>
<p>In 1542, a two kilometer-long canal, "khlong lat Bangkok", was completed. Today it&#39;s called Khlong Bangkok Yai. It is said to have shortened the river route by 14 km.</p><br>
<p>In 1608, a seven kilometer-long "Khlong Bang Phrao" canal was completed and has shortened the Chao Phraya&#39;s original route by 18 km.</p><br>
<p>In 1636, the "khlong lat mueang Nonthaburi" was completed.</p><br>
<p>In 1722, the two kilometre long "khlong lat Kret Noi" shortened the Chao Phraya by 7 km. This route was from the island of Ko Kret.</p><br>
<h2>River settlements</h2><br>
<p>Cities along the Chao Phraya include, from north to south, Nakhon Sawan Province, Uthai Thani Province, Chai Nat Province, Sing Buri Province, Ang Thong Province, Ayutthaya Province, Pathum Thani Province, Nonthaburi Province, Bangkok, and Samut Prakan Province. These cities are among the most historically significant and densely populated settlements of Thailand due to their access to the waterway.</p><br>
<h2>Transportation</h2><br>
<p>Major bridges cross the Chao Phraya in Bangkok: the Rama VI railroad bridge; Phra Pin-klao near the Grand Palace; Rama VIII, a single tower asymmetrical cable-stayed bridge; Rama IX, a semi-symmetric cable-stayed bridge; and Mega Bridge, on the Industrial Ring Road.</p><br>
<p>In Bangkok, the Chao Phraya is a major transportation artery for a network of river buses, cross-river ferries, and water taxis ("longtails"). More than 15 boat lines operate on the rivers and canals of the city, including commuter lines.</p><br>
<h2>Tributaries</h2><br>
<p>The principal tributaries of the Chao Phraya River are the Pa Sak River, the Sakae Krang River, the Nan River (along with its principal confluent the Yom River), the Ping River (with its principal confluent, the Wang River), and the Tha Chin River. Each of these tributaries (and the Chao Phraya itself) is augmented by minor tributaries referred to as khwae. All of the tributaries, including the lesser khwae, form an extensive tree-like pattern, with branches flowing through nearly every province in central and northern Thailand. None of the tributaries of the Chao Phraya extend beyond the nation&#39;s borders. The Nan and the Yom River flow nearly parallel from Phitsanulok to Chumsaeng in the north of Nakhon Sawan Province. The Wang River enters the Ping River near Sam Ngao district in Tak Province.</p><br>
<h2>Chao Phraya watershed</h2><br>
<p>The expanse of the Chao Phraya River and its tributaries, i.e., the Chao Phraya river system, together with the land upon which falling rain drains into these bodies of water, form the Chao Phraya watershed.</p><br>
<p>The Chao Phraya watershed is the largest watershed in Thailand, covering approximately 35 percent of the nation&#39;s land, and draining an area of 157,924 km&sup2;.</p><br>
<p>The watershed is divided into the following basins:</p><br>
<p>Pa Sak Basin</p><br>
<p>Sakae Krang Basin</p><br>
<p>Greater Nan Basin (composed of the Nan Basin and the Yom Basin, and usually divided as such in drainage analyses)</p><br>
<p>Greater Ping Basin (composed of the Ping Basin and the Wang Basin, and usually divided as such in drainage analyses)</p><br>
<p>Tha Chin Basin (the basin of the Chao Phraya&#39;s most significant distributaries)</p><br>
<p>Finally the Chao Phraya Basin itself is defined as the portion of the Chao Phraya watershed drained by the Chao Phraya River itself, and not by its major tributaries or distributaries. As such, the Chao Phraya Basin drains 20,126 km&sup2; of land.</p><br>
<p>To the west, the central plain of Thailand is drained by the Mae Klong and the east by the Bang Pakong River. They are not part of the Chao Praya system.</p><br>
<p>The landscape of the river basins is a very wide, flat, well-watered plain continuously refreshed with soil and sediment brought down by the rivers. The lower central plain from the delta north to Ang Thong Province is a flat, low area with an average of two metres above sea level. Further north and into the plains of the Ping and the Nan the elevation is over 20 m. Then the mountains that are the natural boundary of the Chao Praya watershed form a divide, which has, to some degree, historically isolated Thailand from other Southeast Asian civilisations. In northern Thailand the divide roughly corresponds to a long section of the political border of the country today. Southern portions of the divides boundary correspond less to the nations political border, because isolation in this area was prevented by the ease of transportation along the lowlands surrounding the Gulf of Thailand, allowing a unified Thai civilisation to extend beyond the watershed without issue. The slightly higher northern plains have been farmed for centuries and saw a major change from the 13th century during the Sukhothai Kingdom in the 13th and 14th centuries and the Ayutthaya Kingdom that succeeded it when rice growing intensified with the introduction of floating rice, a much faster-growing strain of rice from Bengal. The southern swamps meanwhile changed radically from the 18th century when King Buddha Yodfa Chulaloke moved the capital of Siam to Bangkok, and a process of canalisation and cultivation began, especially as Thailand began to export rice from 1855.</p><br>
<h2>Delta</h2><br>
<p>The Tha Chin River is the major distributary of the Chao Phraya River. The expanse of the Chao Phraya and Tha Chin Rivers and their distributaries, starting at the point at which the distributaries diverge, together with the land amid the triangle formed by the outermost and innermost distributary, form the Chao Phraya delta. The many distributaries of the Chao Phraya delta are interconnected by canals that serve both for irrigation and for transportation.</p><br>
<h2>Ecology</h2><br>
<p>The lowland areas of the Chao Phraya watershed in central Thailand have been designated as the Chao Phraya freshwater swamp forests, a tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests ecoregion, an area about 400 km north to south and 180 km wide.</p><br>
<p>The original swamp forests have almost entirely been removed as the plain has been converted to rice paddies, other agriculture, and urban areas like Bangkok. Much of the wildlife that once inhabited these plains has disappeared, including a large number of fish in the river systems, birds such as vultures, the Oriental darter (Anhinga melanogaster), white-eyed river martin (Pseudochelidon sirintarae), the sarus crane (Grus antigone) and animals such as tigers, Asian elephants, Javan rhinoceroses, and the much-hunted Schomburgk&#39;s deer. Today we can only guess at the original habitat and wildlife by comparing it with neighbouring countries. It is believed that the area would have consisted of freshwater swamps inland and salty mangroves on the coast and the river estuaries. The swamp would have been covered in Phragmites marsh grasses. Today there is a small area of this remaining in Khao Sam Roi Yot National Park, a relic of the original landscape.</p><br>
<p>As so much has been cleared or altered the potential for creating large protected areas to preserve original habitat no longer exists. However much wildlife does remain in the rice fields and steps may be taken to preserve these as urban and industrial development on the plains is ongoing and the Industrial Estate Authority of Thailand has very little control or planning over this. Particular threats come from the conversion of rice paddies to large-scale production of prawns by pumping in seawater, and the use of pesticides to eliminate the introduced snail,Pomacea canaliculata, which damages rice plants.</p><br>
<p>There are populations of threatened birds, including colonies of breeding water birds such as the worlds largest populations of the near-threatened Asian openbill (Anastomus oscitans), and other birds such as the wintering black kite (Milvus migrans). Endemic mammals that remain are the limestone rat (Niviventer hinpoon), Neills long-tailed giant rat (Leopoldamys neilli), and the near-endemic Thailand roundleaf bat (Hipposideros halophyllus).</p><br>
<p>The Chao Phraya basin is home to about half a dozen endemic dragonflies and damselflies. The conservation status of most of these in unclear (they are rated as data deficient by the IUCN), but Cryptophaea saukra is critically endangered and Caliphaea angka is endangered.</p><br>
<p>There are few areas of wetland protected as national parks, but these are mostly very small.</p><br>
<h3>Fish</h3><br>
<p>The Chao Phraya basin is home to around 280 species of fish, including about 30 endemics. By far the most diverse family is Cyprinidae with 108 species. The mainstream of the Chao Phraya River has about 190 native fish species. In general, the aquatic fauna of Chao Phraya and Mae Klong show clear similarities, and they are sometimes combined in a single ecoregion with 328 fish species. Despite their similarities, there are also differences between the aquatic fauna of Chao Phraya and Mae Klong; the latter (but not the former) is home to a few taxa otherwise only known in major Burmese rivers: the Irrawaddy, Salween, and Tenasserim. The aquatic fauna in Chao Phraya–Mae Klong also show clear similarities with that of the middle Mekong (the lower Mekong fauna more closely resembles that of the eastern Malay Peninsula). It is believed that the upper Mekong was connected to Chao Phraya (rather than present-day lower Mekong) until the Quaternary, which explains the similarities in their river faunas. This included the Nan River basin, a tributary of the Chao Phraya, which is home to a number of taxa (for example, Ambastaia nigrolineata and Sectoria) otherwise only known from Mekong. Of the fish species known from the Chao Phraya–Mae Klong, only about 50 are absent from the Mekong.</p><br>
<p>There has been extensive habitat destruction (pollution, dams, and drainage for irrigation) in the Chao Phraya basin and overfishing also presents a problem. Within mainland Southeast Asia, the only freshwater region with similar high levels of threat is the lower Mekong. It has been estimated that only around 30 native fish species still are able to reproduce in the mainstream of the Chao Phraya River.</p><br>
<p>The catfish Platytropius siamensis is endemic to Chao Phraya and Bang Pakong, but has not been recorded since the 1970s and is considered extinct. Recent records of the near-endemic cyprinid Balantiocheilos ambusticauda are also lacking and it is possibly extinct. critically endangered giant pangasius, and endangered giant freshwater stingray. The critically endangered red-tailed black shark, a small colourful cyprinid that is endemic to Chao Phraya, is commonly seen in the aquarium trade where it is bred in large numbers, but the only remaining wild population is at a single location that covers less than 10 km&sup2;. The endangered dwarf loach, another species bred in large numbers for the aquarium trade, has been extirpated from most of its range in Chao Phraya. The critically endangered Siamese tigerfish has been entirely exirpated from Chao Phraya and Mae Klong, but small populations remain in the Mekong basin.</p><br>
<p>Many other species that either are prominent in the aquarium trade or important food fish are native to the Chao Phraya basin, such as the climbing perch, blue panchax, Asian bumblebee catfish, giant snakehead, striped snakehead, walking catfish, banded loach, several Yasuhikotakia loaches, tinfoil barb, Siamese algae eater, silver barb, pearl danio, rainbow shark, Hampala barb, black sharkminnow, Leptobarbus rubripinna, long pectoral-fin minnow, bonylip barb, Jullien&#39;s golden carp, blackline rasbora, scissortail rasbora, Tor tambroides, finescale tigerfish, marble goby, Chinese algae eater, giant featherback, clown featherback, giant gourami, several Trichopodus gouramis, iridescent shark, several Pangasius, Belodontichthys truncatus, several Phalacronotus sheatfish, several Wallago catfish, largescale archerfish, smallscale archerfish, and wrestling halfbeak.</p><br>
<h3>Pollution</h3><br>
<p>The Thai Pollution Control Department (PCD) reports that the water quality of major rivers flowing into the upper Gulf of Thailand has seriously deteriorated in the past decade. The department found the lower Chao Phraya contains bacteria and nutrient pollution from phosphates, phosphorus, and nitrogen. Nutrient pollution causes algae to grow faster than ecosystems can handle, harming water quality, food resources for aquatic animals, and marine habitats. It also decreases the oxygen that fish need to survive. PCD rated water quality at the mouth of Chao Phraya at Bangkok&#39;s Bang Khun Thian District as "very poor", worse than in 2014. PCD findings indicated large amounts of wastewater were discharged into the river from households, industry, and agriculture.</p><br>
<p>The Sierra Nevada  is a mountain range in the region of Andalucia, in the province of Granada and, a little further, Málaga and Almería in Spain. It contains the highest point of continental Spain and Europe outside the Caucasus Mountains and the Alps, Mulhacén at 3,478 m above sea level.</p><br>
<p>It is a popular tourist destination, as its high peaks make skiing possible in one of Europe&#39;s most southerly ski resorts, in an area along the Mediterranean Sea predominantly known for its warm temperatures and abundant sunshine. At its foothills is found the city of Granada and, a little further, Almería and Málaga.</p><br>
<p>Parts of the range have been included in the Sierra Nevada National Park. The range has also been declared a biosphere reserve. The Sierra Nevada Observatory and the IRAM radiotelescope are located on the northern slopes at an elevation of 2,800 m.</p><br>
<h2>Formation</h2><br>
<p>The Sierra Nevada was formed during the Alpine Orogeny, a mountain-building event that also formed the European Alps to the east and the Atlas Mountains of northern Africa across the Mediterranean Sea to the south. The Sierra as observed today formed during the Paleogene and Neogene Periods (66 to 1.8 million years ago) from the collision of the African and Eurasian continental plates.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Central to the mountain range is a ridge running broadly west-south-west - east-north-east. For a substantial distance, the watershed stays consistently above 3,000 m.</p><br>
<p>On the southern side of the range, several long, (but) narrow river valleys lead off towards the south-west, separated by a number of subsidiary ridges.</p><br>
<p>On the steeper and craggier northern side, the valleys have less regular orientations. This side is dominated by the Rio Genil which starts near Mulhacén and into which many of the other rivers flow.</p><br>
<h3>Highest peaks</h3><br>
<h3>Climate</h3><br>
<p>According to the Köppen climate classification, Sierra Nevada has a mediterranean to subarctic climate (Dsc), due to the locations high elevation and low summer precipitation. With June and September being around the threshold of 10 &deg;C in mean temperature to avoid the subarctic classification, the climate at a slightly lower elevation is continental highland climate. At an elevation slightly lower than that classification area; where February means average above -3 &deg;C; it falls into the normal cool-summer mediterranean classification transitioning with the hot-summer variety in surrounding lowland areas. This renders Sierra Nevadas climate a highland cooled-down variety of a typical mediterranean climate. Summer and winter daytime temperatures are some 12° C cooler than found in Granada, differences that are even greater in spring as Sierra Nevada takes longer to approach the short summers. In May daytime highs in Sierra Nevada are around 4 &deg;C with Granada having an average of 24 &deg;C. The yearly temperature of 3.9 &deg;C is in stark contrast to Granadas 15.7 &deg;C and coastal Málagas 18.5 &deg;C.</p><br>
<h2>Sport</h2><br>
<p>Sierra Nevada Ski Station</p><br>
<p>Rockefeller Center is a large complex consisting of 19 commercial buildings covering 22 acre between 48th and 51st Streets in New York City. Commissioned by the Rockefeller family, it is located in the center of Midtown Manhattan. The 14 original Art Deco buildings span the area between Fifth Avenue and Sixth Avenue, split by a large sunken square and a private street called Rockefeller Plaza. Five International Style buildings, built later, are located on the west side of Sixth Avenue and at the head of Rockefeller Plaza.</p><br>
<p>In 1928, the sites then-owner, Columbia University, leased the land to John D. Rockefeller Jr., who was the main person behind the complexs construction. Originally envisioned as the site for a new Metropolitan Opera building, the current Rockefeller Center came about after the opera could not afford to move to the proposed new building. Various plans were discussed before the current one was approved in 1932. Construction of Rockefeller Center started in 1931, and the first buildings opened in 1933. The core of the complex was completed by 1939.</p><br>
<p>Rockefeller Center is generally divided into two parts: the original center and the later International-style buildings. The original center itself is divided into several sections: Radio City, for RCA&#39;s radio-related enterprises such as the Music Hall and 30 Rockefeller Plaza; the International Complex, for foreign tenants; and the remainder of the original complex, which originally hosted printed media as well as Eastern Air Lines. While 600 Fifth Avenue is located at the southeast corner of the complex and contains architecture similar to the original complex, it was built by private interests in the 1950s and was only acquired by the center in 1963.</p><br>
<p>Described as among one of the greatest projects of the Great Depression era, Rockefeller Center was declared a New York City landmark in 1985 and a National Historic Landmark in 1987. It is noted for the large quantities of art present on almost all of its Art Deco buildings, as well as its Radio City section and its ice-skating rink. The complex is also famous for its annual lighting of the Rockefeller Center Christmas Tree.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Context</h3><br>
<p>The site formerly belonged to David Hosack, who opened Elgin Gardens, the countrys first botanical garden, on the site in 1804. The gardens operated until 1811, and by 1823, ended up in the ownership of Columbia University. Development came in the late 1850s, and the university implemented height restrictions. Narrow brownstone houses and expensive "Vanderbilt Colony" mansions were built on nearby streets, and by 1879, there were brownstones on all of the Columbia propertys 203 plots. Columbia moved north to Morningside Heights by the turn of the century.</p><br>
<p>In 1926, the Metropolitan Opera started looking for locations to build a new opera house to replace the "Old Met" at 39th Street and Broadway. By 1928, Benjamin Wistar Morris and designer Joseph Urban were hired to come up with blueprints for the house. However, the new building was too expensive for the opera to fund by itself, and it needed an endowment. John D. Rockefeller Jr. gave his support to the project after his family adviser Ivy Lee attended a dinner where Morris spoke about the proposal. He subsequently hired Todd, Robertson and Todd as design consultants to determine its viability. John R. Todd then put forth a plan for the opera, with a plaza in the center and retail space surrounding the plaza.</p><br>
<p>Columbia leased the plot to Rockefeller for 87 years at a cost of $3 million per year.</p><br>
<p>Rockefeller hosted a "symposium" of architectural firms to solicit plans for the complex, which were presented in May 1929. Rockefeller ultimately selected Corbett, Harrison & MacMurray; Hood, Godley & Fouilhoux; and Reinhard & Hofmeister, to design the buildings. They worked under the umbrella of "Associated Architects" so none of the buildings could be attributed to any specific firm. The principal builder and "managing agent" for the massive project was John R. Todd, one of the co-founders of Todd, Robertson and Todd. The principal architect was Raymond Hood of Hood, Godley & Fouilhoux, who would lead Associated Architects. Hood, along with Harvey Wiley Corbett of Corbett, Harrison & MacMurray, were retained as consultants. The team included Wallace Harrison of Corbett, Harrison & MacMurray, later to become the familys principal architect and adviser to John Rockefeller Jrs son Nelson. L. Andrew Reinhard and Henry Hofmeister had been hired by John Todd as the "rental architects", who designed the floor plans for the complex.</p><br>
<p>The Metropolitan Square Corporation, a holding company for Rockefellers assets, bought the lease in 1929. In August 1929, Rockefeller also created the Underel Corporation, a holding company, to purchase the strip of land on Sixth Avenue that he did not already lease. However, these plans were hampered by the Metropolitan Operas dilatory position toward the development, with the opera choosing to hold out for a more favorable lease because it worried about the site&#39;s profitability. After the stock market crash of 1929, these concerns were invalidated by the fact that the Metropolitan Opera could not afford to move anymore. The opera instead suggested that Rockefeller pay for half for the old opera house and the land under it, an offer that Rockefeller refused. On December 6, 1929, the plans for the new opera house were abandoned completely.</p><br>
<h3>Updated project</h3><br>
<p>In order to make a profit on the site as quickly as possible, Rockefeller devised new plans quickly so that the site could become profitable. They entered into talks with Radio Corporation of America (RCA) and its subsidiaries, National Broadcasting Company (NBC) and Radio-Keith-Orpheum (RKO), to build a mass media entertainment complex on the site. Rockefeller later stated, "It was clear that there were only two courses open to me. One was to abandon the entire development. The other to go forward with it in the definite knowledge that I myself would have to build it and finance it alone."</p><br>
<h4>Planning</h4><br>
<p>In January 1930, Todd released a new plan with a 50-story tower in the middle and space for a Metropolitan Opera House. Two months later, after the Underel Corporation had acquired the leases for the land near Sixth Avenue, a new plan was released with facilities for "television, music, radio, talking pictures and plays". This new plan included four theaters. Under Rockefellers plan, the demolition of the sites existing structures would start in the fall, and the complex would be complete by 1933. The center also entered a funding agreement with the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company in March 1930.</p><br>
<p>During early planning, the development was often referred to as "Radio City". Before the announcement that the development would include a mass media complex, there were also other appellations such as "Rockefeller City" and "Metropolitan Square" (after the Metropolitan Square Corporation). Ivy Lee, the Rockefeller family&#39;s publicity adviser, suggested changing the name to "Rockefeller Center". John Rockefeller Jr. initially did not want the Rockefeller family name associated with the commercial project, but was persuaded on the grounds that the name would attract far more tenants. The name was formally changed in December 1931.</p><br>
<p>Another plan was announced in March 1931, with a music hall, 66-story skyscraper, oval retail building, a private central street, a sunken plaza, and other office buildings. There was also an underground pedestrian mall with shops. The oval building was later replaced with four small retail buildings and a 41-story tower, comprising the current International Complex. The update to the plan also included rooftop gardens and a recessed central plaza. The International Complex was eventually occupied by British, French, and Italian tenants,</p><br>
<p>leading to its current name. The design of the complex was affected greatly by the 1916 Zoning Resolution, which restricted the height that the street-side exterior walls of New York City buildings could rise before they needed to incorporate setbacks that recessed the buildings&#39; exterior walls away from the streets.</p><br>
<h4>Construction</h4><br>
<p>For the project, 228 buildings on the site were razed and some 4,000 tenants relocated. All of the buildings&#39; leases were bought by August 1931. There were some holdouts, such as the St. Nicholas Church, who refused to sell the property despite an offer of up to $7 million for the property. Excavation of the Sixth Avenue side of the complex began in July 1931, and construction on the first buildings—the Music Hall and Center Theatre—began in September and November, respectively. The plans for the complex notably included Indiana Limestone on the facades of the fourteen planned buildings, and the builders ordered 14,000,000 ft&sup3; of limestone in December 1931, the largest such order at the time.</p><br>
<p>The RKO Building was the first structure to be completed, in September 1932, followed by the Music Hall in December 1932. The RCA building was open by April 1933, as was the British Building. A new street through the complex, Rockefeller Plaza, was constructed in stages between 1933 and 1937. The complexs famed Christmas tree in the center of the plaza was erected for the first time in December 1933, and the complexs Prometheus statue was constructed in May 1934. By July 1934, the complex had leased 80% of the available space in the six buildings that were already opened.</p><br>
<p>Work on two more International-themed retail buildings, as well as a larger 38-story, 512 ft "International Building" at 45 Rockefeller Center, started in September 1934. One of the two small buildings was already rented to Italian interests. The final small building would have been rented by Germany under the name "Deutsches Haus", but Rockefeller ruled this out in 1934 after being advised of Adolf Hitlers Nazi march toward World War II. With no definite tenant for the second structure, Rockefeller Centers managers downsized and modified the plans for the buildings, and the empty office site thus became "International Building North", rented by various international tenants. In April 1935, developers opened the Palazzo d&#39;Italia and the International Building.</p><br>
<p>The "Gardens of the Nations" on the RCA Building&#39;s 11th-story roof was complete by April 1935, and the underground pedestrian mall and ramp system between 48th and 51st Streets was finished in early May. In 1936, an ice skating rink replaced the unprofitable retail space on the lower plaza. Gardens on the roofs of the two theaters were installed in 1937.</p><br>
<p>The 36-story Time & Life Building, named for anchor tenant Time Inc., was completed in November 1936, replacing an empty plot on the southern block that had been used for vehicle parking. Eleven buildings had been completed by 1937 at a total cost of over $100 million. A building for Associated Press on the northern blocks empty lot, which had been reserved for the Metropolitan Opera house, was topped out by June 1938 and occupied by December of that year. The presence of Associated Press and Time Inc. expanded Rockefeller Centers scope from strictly a radio-communications complex to a hub of both radio and print media. The Guild, a newsreel theater, opened in 1938 along the curve of the truck ramp below the Associated Press Building.A proposed 16-story building on the southernmost blocks final plot was offered to the Dutch government in 1938, but the Dutch government did not enter the agreement because of Hitlers invasion of the Netherlands at the time. Instead, Eastern Air Lines signed a lease for the building in June 1940. The Dutch government did move into temporary offices in the International Building. Excavation started in October 1938, and the building was topped out by April 1939. John Rockefeller installed the building&#39;s ceremonial final rivet on November 2, 1939, marking the completion of the original complex. The Eastern Air Lines building, was not officially complete until its dedication in October 1940.</p><br>
<p>The construction of the project employed over 40,000 people. The complex was the largest private building project ever undertaken in contemporary times. Carol Herselle Krinsky, in her 1978 book, describes the center as "the only large private permanent construction project planned and executed between the start of the Depression and the end of the Second World War".</p><br>
<h3>World War II era</h3><br>
<p>Nelson Rockefeller became president of Rockefeller Center in 1938. It subsequently became the primary location of the USA operations of British Intelligence, British Security Coordination (BSC) during the War, with Room 3603 becoming the principal operations center for Allied intelligence, organized by William Stephenson, as well as the office of the future head of what was later to become the Central Intelligence Agency, Allen Dulles.</p><br>
<p>Rockefeller Center only became profitable after the last building in the original complex was completed. The complex had incurred $26 million in debt by 1935, which had increased to $39 million by 1940. However, the complex was already 87% rented by 1940, and by the next year, Rockefeller Center was nearly fully rented, making a profit for the first time in its history. After the original complex was finished, Rockefeller started to look for ways to expand, even though the outbreak of World War II stopped almost all civilian construction projects. In 1943, the complexs managers bought land and buildings on three street corners near the complex. Rockefeller Center unveiled plans for expansion to the southwest and north in 1944. At the time, the complexs existing rentable area totaled 5,290,000 ft2, with 99.7% of the space being leased. Because the complex was almost completely rented, Rockefeller Centers managers kept waiting lists of potential tenants, and the complexs office space became more desirable for potential tenants.</p><br>
<h3>Expansion</h3><br>
<p>Esso was one of the tenants who wanted to expand, and the company signaled that it would build its own office tower if Rockefeller Center&#39;s managers did not construct a building for them. They were given land at the north end of Rockefeller Plaza. In February 1947, the under-construction Esso Building, at the north end of the existing property, became part of Rockefeller Center after ownership of the building was transferred from the Haswin Corporation to Rockefeller Center, Inc. The building was topped out the next month.</p><br>
<p>After the war, some tenants, such as the Sinclair Oil Corporation, indicated that they wanted to leave the complex after their leases expired in 1962–1963 because the original complexs buildings did not have air conditioning, while newer office buildings did. As Columbia University still owned the land underneath the complex, they were tasked with installing air conditioning in the buildings. The new building would add emphasis to any north-south views of the center, since the existing complexs building only formed west-east axes. Another problem befell Rockefeller Center&#39;s key tenants, NBC and RCA, who were approached by other developers with the promise of more leasable space, a commodity that was scarce in the fully leased complex. These problems were pushed aside temporarily by the onset of the Korean War in 1950. By 1951, Columbia had acquiesced to reimbursing Rockefeller Center, Inc., for AC installation, while NBC and RCA were given permission to use the Center Theatre for extra broadcasting space.</p><br>
<p>In 1949, in the face of a shrinking congregation, the St. Nicholas Church leased the church building to the Massachusetts Mutual Life Insurance Company, who then leased three contiguous plots from Rockefeller Center for a proposed 28-story building. The church moved out of its plot on Fifth Avenue and 48th Street, and the old church building was subsequently demolished. Construction commenced on 600 Fifth Avenue in 1950, and the tower was completed by 1952. The building was named after the Sinclair Oil Company, who leased eight floors. As a result of Sinclairs relocation to 600 Fifth Avenue, as well as Essos relocation to 75 Rockefeller Plaza, NBC and RCA could expand into the space that Sinclair and Esso formerly occupied in the original complex, and they moved out of the Center Theatre shortly after the Sinclair Oil Company moved into its own tower. In summer 1953, Columbia bought all of the land along Sixth Avenue that had been owned by the Underel Corporation, at a cost of $5.5 million. Rockefeller Center leased the land back to Columbia until 1973 for $200,000 a year. This allowed Columbia to install air conditioning, passing the costs on to the remaining tenants in return for lease extensions.</p><br>
<p>The small Center Theatre was deemed redundant to the Radio City Music Hall, and in its final years, had been used as an NBC and RCA broadcasting space. After NBC and RCA expanded into the floor area formerly occupied by Sinclair, the USA Rubber Company indicated that it wanted to expand its office building into the space that was taken up by the underused theater. In October 1953, it was announced that the theater would be demolished.</p><br>
<p>Time-Life also wanted to expand, as its existing space in 1 Rockefeller Plaza was insufficient by 1953. In August of that year, Rockefeller Center, Inc., bought a tract of land on the west side of Sixth Avenue between 50th and 51st Streets. In 1956, two years after the demolition of the Center Theatre, officials announced the construction of a new tower, the Time-Life Building, on the that plot. The 500 ft, $7 million building would include connections to the existing passageway system and to Roxys Theater directly to its west. Time Inc. and Rockefeller Center formed a joint venture, Rock-Time Inc., which would share the towers rent income between Time Inc. and Rockefeller Center. Around 1960, Rockefeller Center, Uris Buildings Corporation, and Webb and Knapp formed another joint venture, Rock-Uris Corp. Originally, the venture wanted to construct a hotel to the west of 75 Rockefeller Center, but ultimately, a glass-and-concrete 43-story office building was built on the site. In 1961, the building was named after Sperry Corporation, who leased eight floors in the future building. The hotel, New York Hilton at Rockefeller Center, was built two blocks north in 1963.</p><br>
<p>600 Fifth Avenue was sold to Rockefeller Centers managers in 1963, thus officially becoming part of Rockefeller Center. The same year, officials from Esso (later renamed Exxon) proposed a new building for the complex because the company had outgrown the space in the buildings it already occupied. Rockefeller Centers managers hired the architectural firm Harrison & Abramovitz to design three new towers on the west side of Sixth Avenue, with one tower on each block between 47th and 50th Streets. The Exxon Building, at 1251 Avenue of the Americas between 49th and 50th Streets, was formally announced in August 1967. Three months later, officials also announced plans for a tower housing McGraw-Hill, located one block south at 1221 Avenue of the Americas. Plans for a tower anchored by Celanese, to be located at 1211 Avenue of the Americas between 47th and 48th Streets, would not be revealed until 1970. The Exxon Building opened in 1971, followed by the McGraw-Hill Building in 1973 and the Celanese Building in 1974. By the time all three of the new buildings were opened, Rockefeller Center contained 7% of Manhattan&#39;s 250,000,000 ft2 of leasable office space.</p><br>
<p>600 Fifth Avenue and 75 Rockefeller Plaza received renovations in the early 1970s. Unlike in the rest of the complex, where different components were renovated one at a time to avoid disturbing tenants, the two structures were renovated all at once because their space was largely vacant.</p><br>
<h3>Later years</h3><br>
<p>A New York Times report in 1982 stated that Rockefeller Center had been popular among tenants from its inception, being almost fully rented for much of the first half-century of its existence. The major exception was in the 1970s, when it was only 85% rented. However, Rockefeller Center was not popular as an entertainment complex, having been used for mainly commercial purposes through its history. The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission extended the Music Halls landmark status to the exteriors of all of the original complexs buildings in 1985. In its approval of the complex&#39;s status, the commission wrote, "Rockefeller Center ranks among the grandest architectural projects ever undertaken in the United States". The buildings became a National Historic Landmark two years later. The United States Department of the Interior wrote in its report that the center was "one of the most successful urban planning projects in the history of American architecture".</p><br>
<p>In 1985, Columbia University sold the land beneath Rockefeller Center to the Rockefeller Group for $400 million. Mitsubishi Estate, a real estate company of the Mitsubishi Group, purchased the Rockefeller Group in 1989. Seven years later, in July 1996, the entire complex was purchased by a consortium of owners that included Goldman Sachs (which had 50 percent ownership), Gianni Agnelli, Stavros Niarchos, and David Rockefeller, who organized the consortium. Tishman Speyer, led by Jerry Speyer, a close friend of David Rockefeller, and the Lester Crown family of Chicago, bought the original 14 buildings and land in 2000 for $1.85 billion. Owing to the decline of the newsreel theater industry, the Guild was shuttered in late 1999 after Tishman Speyer decided not to renew its lease.</p><br>
<h2>Buildings</h2><br>
<p>The current complex is a combination of two building complexes and a standalone building: the original 14 Art Deco office buildings from the 1930s, one building across 51st Street built in 1947, and a set of four International-style towers built along the west side of Avenue of the Americas during the 1960s and 1970s. The center spans 22 acre in total.</p><br>
<h3>Landmark buildings</h3><br>
<p>The landmark buildings comprise 12 acre in Midtown, bounded by Fifth and Sixth Avenues between 48th and 51st Streets. Built as a cohesive unit, the buildings have been owned by Tishman-Speyer since 2000.</p><br>
<h4>Radio City</h4><br>
<p>The east side of Sixth Avenue, officially known as Avenue of the Americas, contains most of the buildings that were built specifically for the proposed radio complex. These buildings, which comprise "Radio City", are 1270 Avenue of the Americas, 30 Rockefeller Plaza, 1250 Avenue of the Americas, and Radio City Music Hall. The idea for an integrated media complex somewhere came in 1920, when Owen D. Young, the chairman of RCA parent General Electric, suggested that RCA combine its then-disparate offices into one location. RCAs subsequent move to Rockefeller Center changed Rockefeller Centers character from an entertainment complex to a mass-media production center.</p><br>
<p>The western half of the southernmost block of the complex along Sixth Avenue, between 48th and 49th Streets, contains the former USA Rubber Company Building (now Simon & Schuster Building) at 1230 Avenue of the Americas. The 19-story annex, designed by Wallace Harrison and Max Abramovitz, had a glass facade on the lowest two stories—reflecting the design of the American Airlines Building across Sixth Avenue—and a limestone facade above the second story. It is aligned with the axis of the Eastern Air Lines Building on the eastern side of the block, and its northern and southern elevations contain five setbacks.</p><br>
<p>The Center Theatre, at 1236 Sixth Avenue, was the only structure in the original Rockefeller Center to be demolished. The 3,700-seat Center Theatre had a short massing (general shape) in place due to height restrictions at the time, which prohibited construction above theater auditoriums. Due to its duplication of the larger Radio City Music Halls activities, it was deemed uneconomical almost from its opening, The theaters stage was enlarged for musicals in 1936, and four years later, 380 seats were removed in order to make way for an ice rink for skating spectactulars. It showed film, musicals, ice-skating competitions, and television through its 21-year existence. Since the Center Theatre hosted the same types of entertainment as the larger, more lavish Radio City Music Hall, it was deemed redundant by the 1950s. In 1954, it was replaced by the expansion of 1230 Avenue of the Americas.</p><br>
<p>The block immediately to the north, on Sixth Avenue between 49th and 50th Streets, is occupied by 30 Rockefeller Plaza and its western annex at 1250 Sixth Avenue. 30 Rockefeller Plaza was built as a single structure occupying the entire block between Sixth Avenue and Rockefeller Plaza, and its design was influenced by John Todds desire for the building to use its air rights to their maximum potential. It has three main segments: the 70-story tower rising from the eastern part of the base with the famous Rainbow Room restaurant on the 65th floor, and, formerly, the Rockefeller family office; a windowless segment in the middle of the base that houses NBC Studios; and a shorter 16-story tower on the western part of the base at 1250 Avenue of the Americas. As an icon of the complex, 30 Rockefeller Plazas architecture influenced the design of the rest of the complex, with its limestone facade and Gothic-inspired four-leafed spandrels.</p><br>
<p>Radio City Music Hall at 1260 Avenue of the Americas, occupying the southwestern portion of the block between 50th and 51st streets. and since opening has seen over 300 million visitors. Located in a niche adjacent to the neighboring 1270 Avenue of the Americas, the Music Hall is housed under the building&#39;s seventh-floor setback.</p><br>
<p>The other building on the block between 50th and 51st Streets is 1270 Avenue of the Americas, The RKO Building served as headquarters for its namesake company&#39;s movie production in the 1930s, and was renamed for the American Metal Climax Company (AMAX), its new owners, in the early 1960s.</p><br>
<h4>International complex</h4><br>
<p>The International Complex is located entirely along Fifth Avenue, with the tall International Building overshadowing four smaller country-themed retail buildings. Three of the buildings—the tall tower and the two southern retail buildings—were planned after the cancellation of the incongruously designed oval retail building in 1931, while the two retail buildings to the north were added later. The low rectangular structures that replaced the oval building were seen as a more suitable design for the avenue. The current international theme was decided on due to a lack of American tenants willing to rent there; eventually, the buildings were occupied by British, French, and Italian interests, although the Italian interests ultimately were the only foreign tenants who rented for the long term.</p><br>
<p>All four retail buildings have identical limestone facades, roof gardens, and ground-floor storefronts, but differ in the artworks with which they were decorated. Contemporary advertisements for shopping on Fifth Avenue touted the complexs proximity to Saks Fifth Avenue and St. Patricks Cathedral. When viewed from Fifth Avenue, the buildings provide a foreground for the taller 30 Rockefeller Plaza building behind them. The Channel Gardens separate the British Empire Building and La Maison Francaise.</p><br>
<p>The southernmost of the four retail buildings is La Maison Francaise (literally "the French House") at 610 Fifth Avenue, which opened in October 1933. It is a six-story standalone building with a limestone facade with a sixth-story setback, as well as a partial -story penthouse on the west half of the seventh story and a garden on the east side of the seventh-story roof. Immediately across the Channel Gardens to the north of La Maison Francaise is its twin, the British Empire Building at 620 Fifth Avenue, which opened in April 1933. It is also a standalone building, with exactly the same massing as La Maison Francaise, down to the setback, rooftop garden, and half-penthouse.</p><br>
<p>The 512 ft International Building has the address 630 Fifth Avenue to its east, or 45 Rockefeller Plaza to its west. The tower stands at 41 stories high, including mechanical floors. One of two skyscrapers that opened in Manhattan in 1935, it was noted for its short 136-day duration of construction, as well as the construction quality, overall design, and materials used. The building, located in the middle of the block between Rockefeller Plaza and Fifth Avenue, contains a central plaza on its east, facing the Fifth Avenue entrance, which contains the famous statue of Atlas. The Palazzo dItalia and International Building North serve as six-story retail wings of the International Building. The Palazzo dItalia is located at 626 Fifth Avenue, on the south side of the plaza, while International Building North is located at 636 Fifth Avenue, north of the plaza.</p><br>
<h4>Other buildings</h4><br>
<p>The 36-story tower at 1 Rockefeller Plaza, on the east side of the plaza between 48th and 49th Streets, is the original Time–Life Building that was completed in April 1937. In 1960, the building was renamed for General Dynamics after Time Inc. had moved into 1271 Avenue of the Americas, the new Time-Life Building located three blocks away. The tower was renamed for its street address after General Dynamics moved to St. Louis in 1971. The tower contains a 10th-floor setback on the 48th Street side, while its 49th Street side is actually set back from the street, rising as a slab. The Rockefeller Plaza side is almost a slab except for the 10th-story setback, and the eastern side connects to 600 Fifth Avenue via a seven-story annex. Its north-south axis aligns with the since-modified alignment of the International Building. One Rockefellers artwork was designed for a generic tenant, with a general life theme. The artwork included Lawries bas-relief of Pegasus, robed figure, and eagle above the entrance, signifying human progress; Attilio Piccirillis "Joy of Life" limestone relief, depicting a hedonistic Dionysus; and Carl Paul Jenneweins industry and agriculture reliefs in the entrance portal.</p><br>
<p>600 Fifth Avenue is located at the corner of Fifth Avenue and 48th Street. The 28-story tower was once also known as the Sinclair Oil Building and the Manufacturers Hanover Trust Company Building. Its L-shaped footprint surrounds another building at the corner of 49th Street and Fifth Avenue, such that it fronts 200 ft on 48th Street, 100 ft on Fifth Avenue, but only 63 ft midblock on 49th Street. Carson and Lundin designed 600 Fifth Avenue, along with 666 Fifth Avenue three blocks north, to complement the Rockefeller complex between the two towers. 600 Fifth Avenue contains a limestone facade, consistent with that of the original complex, as well as a seventh-story setback on its Fifth Avenue side and rooftop gardens on its setbacks. The building contains a main lobby at 48th Street, a service entrance to the same street, and a connection to 1 Rockefeller Plaza at its west end. Unlike other buildings in the complex, 600 Fifth Avenue&#39;s ground level only contained one public entrance to maximize the ground-floor retail space, which was originally leased by Swiss interests and Pan Am Airlines.</p><br>
<p>10 Rockefeller Plaza is located opposite 1 Rockefeller, on the west side of the plaza. Its planning name was the Holland House, but the Dutch government did not sign on, so the building became the Eastern Air Lines Building instead. 10 Rockefeller was built as a 16-story slab, basically a miniature version of 1 Rockefeller. Unlike the other buildings, there are no exterior reliefs or carvings on 10 Rockefeller Center. Diverging from the standard style of the complex, it contained two glass-faced 4-story retail wings to its north and south, with a rounded moderne corner at Rockefeller Plaza and 48th Street. Instead of a limestone entrance portal, 10 Rockefeller had a glass portal with a large mural on the lobby wall behind it. The design of the glass-faced retail space was considered "baffling" to retailers, and the space remained unused until at least the 1950s. As stipulated in the original plans, the building also contains a six-floor parking garage with 800 spots, accessible from either 48th or 49th Streets. Garages in New York City office buildings had been prohibited under the 1916 zoning law until it was amended in 1935. As a result, the design of 10 Rockefeller&#39;s garage was unique for the area, with a lounge for car owners, a recreational area for chauffeurs, and bronze firepoles for attendants to access the garage quickly. A rooftop garden exists above the garage and retail space. Notable modern tenants include the Today Show studios,</p><br>
<p>and since 2005, the Nintendo New York store.</p><br>
<p>50 Rockefeller Plaza, formerly the Associated Press Building, is located on the west side of Rockefeller Plaza between 50th and 51st Streets. to 1999. Isamu Noguchis 10 ST stainless steel panel, News, is located above the buildings entrance. His work, which depicts the various forms of communications used by journalists in the 1930s, honors the different occupations in the news industry.</p><br>
<h3>Later buildings</h3><br>
<p>The buildings subsequently added are separately owned by multiple owners. The first subsequent building to be built was 75 Rockefeller Plaza, at 51st Street on the north end of the complex, was built in 1947. The building contains a low base that is level with the rooftops of the low-rise buildings on 51st and 52nd Street, as well as a tall slab rising from the base, aligned in a north-south direction. It was originally built privately, but ownership was transferred to Rockefeller Center in February 1947. The 33-story, 400 ft building was originally called the Esso Building. It was the headquarters of Standard Oil Company of New Jersey (later Exxon) until the early 1970s. The Esso Building was later renamed after Time Warner. It is now owned by Mohamed Al Fayed and managed by RXR Realty.</p><br>
<p>The other four buildings were built as part of a single project on the west side of Sixth Avenue between 47th and 51st Streets. Erected from 1958 through 1974, they were all built by the same firm, Harrison, Abramovitz & Harris.</p><br>
<p>1211 Avenue of the Americas, the former Celanese Building, is located between 47th and 48th Streets.</p><br>
<p>1221 Avenue of the Americas, the former McGraw-Hill Building, is located between 48th and 49th Streets. Opened in 1972, It is owned by the Rockefeller Group.</p><br>
<p>1251 Avenue of the Americas, the former Exxon Building, is located between 49th and 50th Streets. It was built from 1967 to 1971. Exxons corporate headquarters moved into the structure in 1972, with co-ownership with Rockefeller Centers managers, and held an ownership stake there until 1986, when Mitsui & Company purchased the building. Exxon moved its headquarters to Texas in 1989, vacating all of the space in 1251 Avenue of the Americas.</p><br>
<p>1271 Avenue of the Americas, the former Time & Life Building, is located between 50th and 51st Streets. Built from 1956 to 1958, it is owned by the Rockefeller Group.</p><br>
<h2>Other architectural elements</h2><br>
<h3>Lower Plaza</h3><br>
<p>At the front of 30 Rock is the Lower Plaza, in the very center of the complex. The center plaza was part of the plans for the canceled Metropolitan Opera House. Although the opera house was canceled in 1929, the plaza was retained in subsequent plans, and in the 1931 revision to the complex&#39;s blueprint, the center plaza was enhanced and sunken. The sunken plaza was originally supposed to be oval-shaped, but the shape was later changed to rectangular.</p><br>
<p>The plaza&#39;s main entrance is through the Channel Gardens, a 60 ft, 200 ft planted pedestrian esplanade running westward from Fifth Avenue between the British Empire Building and La Maison Francaise. The steeply sloping promenade was originally furnished with six narrow pools in the center of the space, each surrounded by hedges. The pools are topped with fountain heads designed by Rene Chambellan, each representing a different attribute: leadership, will, thought, imagination, energy, and alertness. At the western end of the promenade is a plaque commemorating the original Elgin Gardens, as well as a bronze monumental plaque to John D. Rockefeller Jr. From there, a flight of the steps descends toward the rink, then splits into two different stairs heading both north and south.</p><br>
<p>The western end of the plaza contains Paul Manship&#39;s 1933 masterwork, Prometheus, located below the famed annual Rockefeller Center Christmas Tree (see also ). The statue stands in a 60 by fountain basin in front of a grey rectangular wall.</p><br>
<p>Much of the plazas outdoor section is occupied by an ice rink. Installed in 1936, it replaced unprofitable retail space that had been constructed as part of the original center. Originally intended as a "temporary" measure, the rink became an immediate tourist attraction upon opening, becoming one of the worlds most famous skating rinks in later years. In 1939, a permanent 120 by rink was installed. Its popularity inspired the construction of a skating rink in the former Center Theatre, and for a short time, there were also proposals to convert the lower plaza&#39;s ice rink to a roller skating rink during the springtime.</p><br>
<p>For a reference to the roller skating rink&#39;s opening, see:</p><br>
<p>The northern, southern, and eastern sides of the plaza are surrounded by a walkway that is several steps below street level, with staircases at either western end as well as at the plazas Channel Gardens entrance. Some 200 flagpoles surround the plazas perimeter at ground level, installed at regular intervals along the walkway and Rockefeller Plaza. The poles were installed in 1943 as part of the international theming in this part of Rockefeller Center. They originally displayed the flags of the United Nations&#39; member countries, although in later years they also carried flags of the USA states and territories, or decorative and seasonal motifs.</p><br>
<p>In July 1962, two years after John Rockefeller Jrs death, the centers management placed a plaque at the plaza, containing a list of ten principles in which John D. Rockefeller Jr. believed. The creed, first expressed in 1941, reads:The architect I. M. Pei has praised Rockefeller Center&#39;s lower plaza as being "the most successful open space in the United States, perhaps in the world". The plaza has also inspired similar developments around the world.</p><br>
<h3>Rockefeller Plaza</h3><br>
<p>Rockefeller Plaza is a pedestrian street running through the complex, parallel to Fifth and Sixth Avenues. This street was also part of the original plans for the Metropolitan Opera, and Benjamin Morris originally intended for the road to stretch from 42nd to 59th Streets. Only the 720 ft section between 48th and 51st Streets was built, and the road was open in its entirety by 1937. The road was given the name "Rockefeller Plaza" in 1933, despite the potential confusion with the Lower Plaza, because it was believed that the "Plaza" in the roads name would emphasize its "spatial unity" with the Lower Plaza and Channel Gardens. The original intention of the streets construction was to enhance the shopping district of Fifth Avenue, to its east, but this never happened, and Rockefeller Plaza now primarily serves as a pedestrian passage that connects all of Rockefeller Center&#39;s separate components.</p><br>
<p>As with most numbered crosstown streets in Manhattan, Rockefeller Plaza is 30 ft wide with curbs on either side of an asphalt surface. However, the sidewalks are much wider than on typical streets. In addition, Rockefeller Plaza is supported by a multi-level steel skeleton underneath, which houses the underground mall, storage rooms, and the complexs shipping and loading center. As such, it contains a 14.5 in layer of waterproofing. The surface of Rockefeller Plaza outside Radio City Music Hall, between 50th and 51st Street, contains small bronze circles for theatergoers to stand on while waiting to enter the hall. Until the 1980s, the plaza contained plaques that affirmed Columbia Universitys ownership of Rockefeller Center, but these were removed with the 1985 sale of the complex to the Rockefeller Group.</p><br>
<h3>Rooftop gardens</h3><br>
<p>The gardens atop Rockefeller Centers roofs were designed by Ralph Hancock and Raymond Hood. They came about because both Hood and Todd believed that rooftop gardens would enhance the complexs beauty; in particular, Hood compared the presence of rooftop gardens to the plants around a house. 30 Rockefeller Plaza; the four International-themed retail buildings; and Radio City Music Hall.</p><br>
<p>The largest and most grand of the gardens was the 0.75 acre "Garden of the Nations" (alternatively "Gardens of the Nations"), which was installed on the eleventh-floor roof of 30 Rockefeller Plaza and opened in April 1935. The Garden of the Nations was the largest and most grand of the gardens complex&#39;s gardens that were constructed. The construction effort involved 3,000 ST of soil; 100 ST of rock from as far as England; 100,000 bricks; 2,000 trees and shrubs; 4,000 small plants; and 20,000 bulbs for flowers. They are composed of thirteen nation-specific gardens whose layouts were inspired by the gardens in the respective countries they represented. Each garden was originally separated by barriers. There is also an "International Garden", a rock garden, in the center of the thirteen nation-themed gardens. Upon opening, the Garden of the Nations was popular because of its collection of exotic flora. In its heyday, the Center charged admission fees for the Garden of the Nations. However, all of the nation-themed gardens were eventually removed, and the rock garden was left to dry up, supplanted by flower beds that were no longer open to the public.</p><br>
<p>The International complexs gardens fared better. Hancock developed the British Empire Building and La Maison Francaises gardens, while A.M. van den Hoek designed the gardens atop the other two buildings. The British and French gardens both contain a lawn and pool surrounded by hedges, while the other two gardens atop the International Buildings wings include ivy lawns surrounded by hedges. The Italian garden also contained a cobblestone walkway and two plaques from the Roman Forum, while International Building Norths garden has a paved walkway with steps. The roof gardens of the International Building&#39;s wings were restored in 1986 for $48,000 each, followed by the gardens on the British and French buildings, which were restored the next year.</p><br>
<h3>Underground concourse</h3><br>
<p>A series of shop- and restaurant-filled, underground pedestrian passages stretch from 47th to 51st Streets, and from Fifth Avenue to Seventh Avenue. The pedestrian tunnel system was part of the updated 1931 plan for the center, and formal proposals for the system were submitted in 1933. It would comprise a system that stretched over 0.75 mi, all air-conditioned and lined with shops. Meanwhile, the pair of four-lane roadways would be located underneath the pedestrian mall, with delivery ramps leading to a 320 by central loading area 34 ft below ground. Later plans also included a people mover. Ultimately, the people mover was not built, but the 25-space mall opened in May 1935. The concourse is the uppermost level of the complexs four basement levels, as well as the only basement level open to the public. The lower three levels are home to storage rooms and the complexs shipping center, the latter of which is accessed by a delivery ramp at 50th Street.</p><br>
<p>Access is via lobby stairways in the six landmark buildings, through restaurants surrounding the concourse-level skating rink, and via elevators to the north and south of the rink. There is also a connection to the New York City Subway&#39;s 47th–50th Streets–Rockefeller Center station, serving the.</p><br>
<h3>Pre-existing buildings</h3><br>
<p>Two small buildings abut the north and south corners of the 30 Rockefeller Plaza annex. These buildings exist as a result of two tenants who refused to sell their rights to Rockefeller during construction (see ). The grocer John F. Maxwell would only sell his property at Sixth Avenue and 50th Street if he received $1 million in return. However, Rockefellers assistant Charles O. Heydt mistakenly said that Maxwell would never sell, and Maxwell himself said that he had never been approached by the Rockefellers. Consequently, Rockefeller Center did not purchase Maxwells property until 1970. Maxwells demand paled to that of Daniel Hurley and Patrick Daly, owners of a speakeasy who, since 1892, had leased a property at 49th Street. They would sell for $250 million, roughly the cost of the entire complex. They initially gained a lease extension until 1942, but ended up leasing their property until 1975, and was built around Maxwells and Hurley and Daly&#39;s properties.</p><br>
<p>On the southeast corner of the complex, on Fifth Avenue between 48th and 49th Streets, there were also two pre-existing buildings. Robert Goelet owned a lot at 2–6 West 49th Street and wished to develop it. The St. Nicholas Church, located on 48th Street behind Goelet&#39;s land, also refused to sell the property despite an offer of up to $7 million for the property. The church was razed in 1949 to make way for 600 Fifth Avenue.</p><br>
<h2>Art</h2><br>
<p>In November 1931, John Todd suggested the creation of a program for placing distinctive artworks within each of the buildings. Hartley Burr Alexander, a noted mythology and symbology professor, was tasked with planning the complexs arts installations. Alexander submitted his plan for the sites artwork in December 1932. As part of the proposal, the complex would have a variety of sculptures, statues, murals, friezes, decorative fountains, and mosaics.</p><br>
<p>At first, Alexander suggested "Homo Fabor, Man the Builder" as the complexs overarching theme, representing satisfaction with ones occupation rather than with the wage. However, that theme was not particularly well-received by the architects, so Alexander proposed another theme, the "New Frontiers&quot this theme dealt with social and scientific innovations and represented the challenges that humanity faced "after the conquest of the physical world". In theory, this was considered a fitting theme, but Alexander had been so specific about the details of the necessary artworks that it limited the creative license for any artists who would commission such works, so he was fired. It took several tries to agree on the current theme, "The March of Civilization", at which point some of the art had already been commissioned, including those which Alexander had proposed.</p><br>
<p>The art that currently exists within Rockefeller Center was part of Professor Alexanders arts program that started in 1931. Sculptor Lee Lawrie contributed the largest number of individual pieces – twelve, including the Atlas statue facing Fifth Avenue and the conspicuous friezes of Wisdom above the main entrance to 30 Rockefeller Plaza. Artist Léon-Victor Solon designed the color scheme for Rockefeller Center and served as the colorist for Lee Lawries pieces. Isamu Noguchis gleaming stainless steel bas-relief, News, over the main entrance to 50 Rockefeller Plaza (the Associated Press Building) was, at the time of commissioning, the largest metal bas-relief in the world. The complexs other sculptors included Rene Chambellan, Leo Friedlander, Robert Garrison, Alfred Janniot, Carl Paul Jennewein, Gaston Lachaise, Leo Lentelli, Paul Manship, Giacomo Manzù, Hildreth Meiere, and Attilio Piccirilli. Other artists included Carl Milles, Margaret Bourke-White, and Dean Cornwell.</p><br>
<h3>Statues</h3><br>
<h4>Atlas</h4><br>
<p>Commissioned in 1936 by Lee Lawrie and Rene Chambellan, the Atlas statue is located in the International Buildings courtyard. It faces eastward toward St. Patricks Cathedral on Fifth Avenue. The statue depicts Atlas the titan, with exaggerated muscles, supporting the celestial vault on his shoulders.</p><br>
<h4>Prometheus</h4><br>
<p>Paul Manships highly recognizable bronze gilded Prometheus statue, commissioned in 1934, is located at the western end of the sunken plaza. It stands 18 ft high and weighs 8 ST. The statue depicts the Greek legend of the Titan Prometheus recumbent, bringing fire to mankind. The statue is flanked by two smaller gilded representations of Youth and Maiden, which were relocated to Palazzo dItalia from 1939 to 1984 because Manship thought the representations did not fit visually. The model for Prometheus was Leonardo (Leon) Nole, and the inscription, a paraphrase from Aeschylus, on the granite wall behind, reads: "Prometheus, teacher in every art, brought the fire that hath proved to mortals a means to mighty ends."</p><br>
<h3>Man at the Crossroads</h3><br>
<p>In 1932, the Mexican socialist artist Diego Rivera (whose sponsor was the Museum of Modern Art and whose patron at the time was Abby Aldrich Rockefeller, the wife of John D. Rockefeller, Jr.), was commissioned by their son Nelson Rockefeller to create a color fresco for the 1,071 ft&sup2; wall in the lobby of the then-RCA Building. This came after Nelson had been unable to secure the commissioning of either Matisse or Picasso. Previously Rivera had painted a controversial fresco in Detroit titled Detroit Industry, commissioned by Abby and John&#39;s friend, Edsel Ford, who later became a trustee of the Museum of Modern Art.</p><br>
<p>As expected, his Man at the Crossroads became controversial, as it contained Moscow May Day scenes and a clear portrait of Lenin, which had not been apparent in initial sketches. After Nelson issued a written warning to Rivera to replace the offending figure with an anonymous face, Rivera refused (after offering to counterbalance Lenin with a portrait of Lincoln). As per Nelsons orders, Rivera was paid for his commission and the mural was papered over. Nine months later, after all attempts to save the fresco were explored – including relocating it to Abbys Museum of Modern Art – it was destroyed as a last option. (Rivera would later partially recreate the work as Man, Controller of the Universe, using photographs taken by an assistant, Lucienne Bloch.) Riveras fresco in the Center was replaced with a larger mural by the Catalan artist Josep Maria Sert, titled American Progress, depicting a vast allegorical scene of men constructing modern America. Containing figures of Abraham Lincoln, Mahatma Gandhi, and Ralph Waldo Emerson, it wraps around the west wall of 30 Rockefeller Plazas Grand Lobby.</p><br>
<p>Green-Wood Cemetery was founded in 1838 as a rural cemetery in Kings County, New York. Like other early rural cemeteries, Green-Wood was founded in a time of rapid urbanization when churchyards in New York City were becoming overcrowded.</p><br>
<p>Located in Greenwood Heights, Brooklyn, the cemetery lies several blocks southwest of Prospect Park, between Park Slope, Windsor Terrace, Borough Park, Kensington, and Sunset Park. In 1866, Paul Goldberger wrote in The New York Times that "it is the ambition of the New Yorker to live upon the Fifth Avenue, to take his airings in the Park, and to sleep with his fathers in Green-wood".</p><br>
<p>The gates of the cemetery were designated a New York City landmark in 1966, The Fort Hamilton Parkway Gate and the cemetery&#39;s chapel were designated as landmarks by New York City in 2016.</p><br>
<p>"Brooklyn&#39;s first public park by default long before Prospect Park was created", the popularity of Green-Wood Cemetery inspired a competition to design a "Central Park" for NYC. It essentially inspired the creation of Central Park and Prospect Park.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Less inspired by Pére Lachaise Cemetery in Paris, which at the time retained the primarily axial formality of Alexandre Théodore Brongniart&#39;s original design, than by recently-opened Mount Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge, Massachusetts, where a cemetery in a naturalistic park-like landscape in the English manner was first established, Green-Wood was able to take advantage of the varied topography provided by glacial moraines. Battle Hill, the highest point in Brooklyn, is on cemetery grounds, rising approximately 200 feet above sea level. It was the site of an important action during the Battle of Long Island on August 27, 1776. A Revolutionary War monument by Frederick Ruckstull, Altar to Liberty: Minerva, was erected there in 1920. From this height, the bronze Minerva statue gazes towards the Statue of Liberty across New York Harbor.</p><br>
<p>The cemetery was the idea of Henry Evelyn Pierrepont, a Brooklyn social leader. The Pierrepont papers deposited at the Brooklyn Historical Society contain material about the organizing of Green-Wood Cemetery. It was a popular tourist destination in the 1850s, and by the early 1860s it was drawing annual crowds second in size only to Niagara Falls. Most famous New Yorkers who died during the second half of the nineteenth century were buried there. Green-Wood Cemetery is still operating with approximately 600,000 graves and 7000 trees spread out over 478 acres (1.9 km). The rolling hills and dales, several ponds and an on-site chapel provide an environment that still draws visitors.</p><br>
<p>There are several famous monuments located there, including a statue of DeWitt Clinton, and a memorial erected by James Brown, president of Brown Brothers bank and the Collins Line, to the six members of his family lost in the disaster of 1854. This incorporates a sculpture of the ship, half-submerged by the waves. As well as a Civil War Memorial, during the Civil War, Green-Wood Cemetery created the "Soldiers Lot" for free veterans burials.</p><br>
<p>The gates were designed by Richard Upjohn in Gothic Revival style. The main entrance to the cemetery was built in 1861-65 of Belleville, New Jersey brownstone. The sculptured groups on Nova Scotia limestone panels depicting biblical scenes of death and resurrection from the New Testament including Lazarus, The Widows Son, and Jesus Resurrection over the gateways are the work of sculptor John M. Moffitt. A Designated Landmarks of New York plaque was erected on it in 1958 by the New York Community Trust, and it was designated an official New York City landmark in 1966.</p><br>
<p>Several wooden shelters were also built, including one in a Gothic Revival style, one resembling an Italian villa, and another resembling a Swiss chalet. A descendent colony of monk parakeets that are believed to have escaped their containers while in transit now nests in the spires of the gate, as well as other areas in Brooklyn. The article presents information concerning the year-round tours led by Steve Baldwin in Brooklyn, New York to the nests of parrots. Baldwin volunteers to lead walking tours to the nests of an extended family of wild Quaker parrots that escaped from a shipping crate at JFK International Airport in the late 1960s.</p><br>
<p>On December 5, 1876, the Brooklyn Theater Fire claimed the lives of at least 278 individuals, with some accounts reporting over 300 dead. Out of that total, 103 unidentified victims were interred in a common grave at Green-Wood Cemetery. An obelisk near the main entrance at Fifth Avenue and 25th Street marks the burial site. More than two dozen identified victims were interred individually in separate sections at the Cemetery of the Evergreens in Brooklyn. Also buried at the cemetery are 6 British Commonwealth service personnel whose graves are registered by the Commonwealth War Graves Commission, 3 from World War I and 3 from World War II, among the latter being Leading Aircraftsman Remsen Taylor Williams (died 1941 aged 26), Royal Canadian Air Force, who is buried in the Steinway Vault.</p><br>
<p>Green-Wood has remained non-sectarian, but was generally considered a Christian burial place for white Anglo-Saxon Protestants of good repute. One early regulation was that no one executed for a crime, or even dying in jail, could be buried there. Although he died in the Ludlow Street Jail, the family of the infamous "Boss" Tweed managed to circumvent this rule. The cemeterys chapel was completed in 1911. It was designed by the architectural firm of Warren and Wetmore, who also designed Grand Central Terminal, the Commodore Hotel, the Yale Club and many other buildings. The chapel is a reduced version of the upper sections of Christopher Wrens Tom Tower at Christ Church College in Oxford; it was restored in 2001.</p><br>
<p>In 1999, The Green-Wood Historic Fund, a 501(c)(3) not-for-profit institution, was created to continue preservation, beautification, educational programs and community outreach as the current "working cemetery" evolves into a Brooklyn cultural institution.</p><br>
<p>The vandalism on August 21, 2012 was one of the worst cases encountered in Green-Wood. Individual(s) was said to have jumped the fence and damage about 50 monuments and memorials.</p><br>
<p>In 2012, Hurricane Sandy toppled or damaged at least 292 of the mature trees, 210 gravestones, and 2 mausoleums in the cemetery. The damage was estimated at $500,000.</p><br>
<p>In December 2012 the controversial and much traveled statue ‘’The Triumph of Civic Virtue’&#39; by Frederick MacMonnies was moved to Green-Wood.</p><br>
<p>Also in 2012, the Angel of Music made by sculptors Giancarlo Biagi and Jill Burkee, memorialized Louis Moreau Gottschalk.</p><br>
<p>In August 2013, in partnership with the Connecticut Society of the Cincinnati, signage in the Battle Hill area of the cemetery was updated to reflect new research on Battle Hill&#39;s importance in the Battle of Brooklyn.</p><br>
<h3>The Historic Fund’s Civil War Project</h3><br>
<p>The Historic Funds Civil War Project, an effort to identify and remember Civil War veterans buried at Green-Wood, was born of the enthusiasm felt at the rededication ceremony of Civil War Soldiers Monument. These early graves have either sunk into the soil, been damaged, or have their markers erased.</p><br>
<h2>Notable burials</h2><br>
<p>Samuel Akerly (1785–1845), founder of the New York Institute for the Blind</p><br>
<p>Augustus Chapman Allen (1806–1864), co-founder of the City of Houston</p><br>
<p>Harvey A. Allen (1818?–1882), United States Army officer, was Commander of the Department of Alaska 1871–1873</p><br>
<p>Albert Anastasia (1903–1957), mobster and contract killer for Murder, Inc.</p><br>
<p>Othniel Boaz Askew (1972–2003; cremated), politician and assassin of New York City Council member James E. Davis, whose remains were relocated to another cemetery</p><br>
<p>James Bard (1815–1897), marine artist, buried in unmarked grave</p><br>
<p>Peter Townsend Barlow (1857–1921), New York City Magistrate</p><br>
<p>Jean-Michel Basquiat (1960–1988), artist</p><br>
<p>William Holbrook Beard (1824–1900), painter of Bulls and Bears representing the market cycle; a bear statue sits on top of his headstone</p><br>
<p>Henry Ward Beecher (1813–1887), abolitionist</p><br>
<p>George Wesley Bellows (1882–1925), painter</p><br>
<p>James Gordon Bennett, Sr. (1795–1872), founder/publisher of the New York Herald</p><br>
<p>Richard Rodney Bennett (1936–2012; cremated), composer of film, TV and concert music</p><br>
<p>Henry Bergh (1818–1888), founder of the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals</p><br>
<p>Leonard Bernstein (1918–1990), pianist, composer, and conductor; alongside his wife, actress Felicia Montealegre (1922-1978)</p><br>
<p>Jane Augusta Blankman (1823–1860), courtesan</p><br>
<p>Samuel Blatchford (1820–1893), USA Supreme Court Justice</p><br>
<p>Stanley Bosworth (1927-2011), Founding headmaster of prestigious Saint Ann&#39;s School</p><br>
<p>Andrew Bryson (1822–1892), United States Navy rear admiral</p><br>
<p>Charlotte Canda, a debutante killed in a carriage accident on her 17th birthday</p><br>
<p>Elliott Carter (1908–2012), composer</p><br>
<p>Alice Cary (1820–1871), poet, author</p><br>
<p>Phoebe Cary (1824–1871), poet, author</p><br>
<p>George Catlin (1796–1872), painter of Native Americans in the Old West</p><br>
<p>Henry Chadwick (1824–1908), Baseball Hall of Fame member (memorial)</p><br>
<p>William Merritt Chase (1849–1916), painter, teacher</p><br>
<p>Kate Claxton (1850–1924), American theatre actress noted for her role of Louise in the play The Two Orphans</p><br>
<p>DeWitt Clinton (1769–1828), unsuccessful USA presidential candidate 1812; USA Senator from New York; seventh and ninth Governor of New York</p><br>
<p>William J. Coombs (1833–1922), USA Congressman from Brooklyn</p><br>
<p>George H. Cooper (1821–1891), United States Navy rear admiral</p><br>
<p>Peter Cooper (1791–1883), inventor, manufacturer, abolitionist, founder of Cooper Union</p><br>
<p>James Creighton, Jr. (1841–1862), first pitcher to throw a fastball</p><br>
<p>Edwin Pearce Christy (1815–1862), minstrel, known for performing the Stephen Foster song "Old Folks at Home" (aka "Swanee River")</p><br>
<p>George Washington Cullum (1809–1892), Superintendent of the United States Military Academy</p><br>
<p>Nathaniel Currier (1813–1888), artist ("Currier and Ives")</p><br>
<p>Duncan Curry (1812–1894), baseball pioneer and insurance executive</p><br>
<p>Elizabeth Cushier (1837–1931), professor of medicine and for 25 years before her retirement in 1900, one of New York&#39;s most prominent obstetricians</p><br>
<p>Bronson M. Cutting (1888–1935), United States Senator from New Mexico (1927–1928; 1929–1935)</p><br>
<p>Marcus Daly (1841–1900), Irish-born copper industrialist in Montana</p><br>
<p>James E. Davis (1962–2003), assassinated City Councilman, was buried here for a few days; upon learning his killer&#39;s ashes were also in Green-Wood, his family had his body exhumed and reinterred in the Cemetery of the Evergreens</p><br>
<p>Charles Schuyler De Bost (1826–1895), baseball pioneer</p><br>
<p>Richard Delafield (1798–1873), Chief of Engineers and Superintendent of West Point</p><br>
<p>Francis E. Dorn (1911–1987), USA Naval Commander, attorney and member of the USA House of Representatives from New York&#39;s 12th congressional district</p><br>
<p>Mabel Smith Douglass (1874–1933), founder and first dean of the New Jersey College for Women</p><br>
<p>Thomas Clark Durant (1820–1885), key figure in building the First Transcontinental Railroad</p><br>
<p>James Durno (1795–1873), husband of labor activist Sarah Bagley (1806–1883)</p><br>
<p>Fred Ebb (1928–2004), lyricist</p><br>
<p>Charles Ebbets (1859–1925), baseball team (Brooklyn Dodgers) owner; built Ebbets Field</p><br>
<p>Elizabeth F. Ellet (1818–1877), American writer and poet</p><br>
<p>George Edwin Ewing (1828–1884), Scottish sculptor</p><br>
<p>Georgia Engelhard (1906-1985), mountaineer in the Canadian Rockies and the Selkirk ranges. Niece of Alfred Stieglitz and his wife, Georgia O’Keefe.</p><br>
<p>Charles Feltman (1841–1910), claimed to be the first person to put a hot dog on a bun</p><br>
<p>Edward Ferrero (1831–1899), American Civil War General at the Battle of the Crater and in the Appomattox Campaign</p><br>
<p>Edwin Forbes (1839–1895), American Civil War and postbellum artist, illustrator, and etcher</p><br>
<p>Isaac Kaufmann Funk (1839–1912), American editor, lexicographer, publisher, and spelling reformer</p><br>
<p>Joey Gallo (1929–1972), mobster</p><br>
<p>William Delbert Gann (1878-1955), Stock Market author and visionary</p><br>
<p>Asa Bird Gardiner (1839–1919), controversial soldier, attorney, and prosecutor</p><br>
<p>Robert Selden Garnett (1819–1861), brigadier general of the Confederate States Army and the first general killed in the American Civil War</p><br>
<p>Henry George (1839–1897), writer, politician and economist</p><br>
<p>Henry George, Jr. (1862–1916), United States Representative from New York</p><br>
<p>Louis Moreau Gottschalk (1829–1869), composer</p><br>
<p>John Franklin Gray (1804–1882), the first practitioner of Homeopathy in the United States</p><br>
<p>Horace Greeley (1811–1872), unsuccessful USA presidential candidate 1872; founder of the New York Tribune</p><br>
<p>Robert Stockton Green (1831–1895), Governor of New Jersey</p><br>
<p>Rufus Wilmot Griswold (1815–1857), literary critic</p><br>
<p>Edward Wheeler Hall (1881–1922), one of the victims of the Hall–Mills murder case</p><br>
<p>Frances Noel Stevens Hall (1874–1942), wife of Edward and suspect in the Hall–Mills murder</p><br>
<p>Paul Hall (1914–1980), labor leader</p><br>
<p>Henry Wager Halleck (1815–1872), USA Army Commander during the middle part of the American Civil War</p><br>
<p>William Stewart Halsted (1852–1922), pioneer in American medicine and surgery, often credited as the "Father of Modern American Surgery"</p><br>
<p>Jeremiah Hamilton (1806/1807–1875), "the only black millionaire in New York" around the time of the American Civil War</p><br>
<p>John Hardy (1835–1913), member of the USA House of Representatives from New York</p><br>
<p>Townsend Harris (1804–1878), first USA Consul General to Japan</p><br>
<p>Nathaniel H. Harris (1834–1900), Confederate brigadier general during the American Civil War</p><br>
<p>William S. Hart (1864–1946), star of silent "Western" movies</p><br>
<p>John A. Hartwell (1861–1940), noted athlete, philanthropist, pioneer in American surgery, and personal physician of Theodore Roosevelt</p><br>
<p>Thomas Hastings (1784–1872), wrote the music to the hymn "Rock of Ages"</p><br>
<p>Genevieve Hecker (1883–1960), champion golfer</p><br>
<p>Joseph Henderson (1826–1890), notable harbor pilot</p><br>
<p>Philip A. Herfort (1851–1921), violinist and orchestra leader</p><br>
<p>Abram S. Hewitt (1822–1903), Teacher, lawyer, iron manufacturer, USA Congressman, and a mayor of New York; son-in-law of Peter Cooper</p><br>
<p>Henry B. Hidden (c. 1839–1862), American Civil War cavalry officer</p><br>
<p>DeWolf Hopper (1858–1935), actor</p><br>
<p>Elias Howe (1819–1867), invented the sewing machine (see Walter Hunt)</p><br>
<p>James Howell (1829–1897), 19th mayor of Brooklyn</p><br>
<p>Walter Hunt (1785–1869), invented the safety pin</p><br>
<p>Richard Isay (1934–2012), psychiatrist, psychoanalyst, author, gay activist</p><br>
<p>James Merritt Ives (1824–1895), artist ("Currier and Ives")</p><br>
<p>Paul Jabara (1948–1992), actor, singer and songwriter</p><br>
<p>Leonard Jerome (1817–1891), entrepreneur, grandfather of Winston Churchill</p><br>
<p>Eastman Johnson (1824–1906), American painter, and co-founder of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City</p><br>
<p>James Weldon Johnson (1871–1938), American author, educator, lawyer, diplomat, songwriter, and civil rights activist. Author of "Lift Every Voice and Sing"</p><br>
<p>Tom L. Johnson (1854–1911), former mayor of Cleveland, Ohio</p><br>
<p>Laura Keene (1826–1873), actress who was on stage when Lincoln was shot</p><br>
<p>Florence La Badie (1888–1917), actress</p><br>
<p>John La Farge (1835–1910), artist</p><br>
<p>Laura Jean Libbey (1862–1924), popular "dime-store" novelist</p><br>
<p>Brockholst Livingston (1757–1823), USA Supreme Court Justice</p><br>
<p>William Livingston (1723–1790), signer of the USA Constitution; first Governor of New Jersey</p><br>
<p>William Lewis Lockwood (1836–1867), one of the founders of the Sigma Chi Fraternity</p><br>
<p>Pierre Lorillard IV (1833–1901), tobacco tycoon, introduced the tuxedo to the USA</p><br>
<p>James Maury (consul) (1746–1840), first USA consul to Liverpool, England</p><br>
<p>Susan McKinney Steward (1847–1918), one of the first black women to earn a medical degree, and the first in the state of New York</p><br>
<p>Ormsby M. Mitchel (1805–1862), American astronomer and major general in the American Civil War</p><br>
<p>Henry James Montague (1840–1878), stage actor</p><br>
<p>Lola Montez (1821–1861), actress and mistress of many notable men among them King Ludwig I of Bavaria</p><br>
<p>Frank Morgan (1890–1949), actor (The Wizard of Oz)</p><br>
<p>Samuel F. B. Morse (1791–1872), invented Morse code, language of the telegraph</p><br>
<p>William Niblo (1790–1878), also known as Billy Niblo, the owner of Niblo&#39;s Garden</p><br>
<p>Violet Oakley (1874–1961), artist</p><br>
<p>James Kirke Paulding (1779–1860), USA Secretary of the Navy under Martin Van Buren; thought to be "author" of "Peter picked a peck of pickled peppers"</p><br>
<p>Mary Ellis Peltz (1896–1981), American drama and music critic, magazine editor, poet and writer on music.</p><br>
<p>Anson Greene Phelps (1781–1853), founder of Phelps, Dodge mining and copper company</p><br>
<p>Duncan Phyfe (1768–1854), cabinetmaker</p><br>
<p>Hezekiah Pierrepont (1768–1838) merchant and founder of Brooklyn Heights, Brooklyn</p><br>
<p>William "Bill The Butcher" Poole (1821–1855), a member of the Bowery Boys gang and the Know Nothing political party; also a bare-knuckle boxer</p><br>
<p>Henry Jarvis Raymond (1820–1869), American journalist and politician and founder of The New York Times</p><br>
<p>Samuel C. Reid (1783–1861), suggested the design upon which all USA flags since 1818 have been based</p><br>
<p>Alice Roosevelt (1861–1884), first wife of USA President Theodore Roosevelt</p><br>
<p>Martha Bulloch Roosevelt (1834–1884), mother of USA President Theodore Roosevelt</p><br>
<p>Robert Roosevelt (1829–1906), uncle of USA President Theodore Roosevelt</p><br>
<p>Theodore Roosevelt, Sr. (1831–1878), father of USA President Theodore Roosevelt</p><br>
<p>Henry Rutgers (1745–1830), Revolutionary War hero, philanthropist, namesake of Rutgers University</p><br>
<p>Ira Sankey (1840–1908), hymn composer</p><br>
<p>Frederick August Otto Schwarz (1836–1911), founder of specialty toy retailer FAO Schwarz</p><br>
<p>Eli Siegel (1902–1978), poet, educator, founder of the philosophy Aesthetic Realism</p><br>
<p>John D. Sloat (1781–1867), United States Navy commodore, claimed California for the USA</p><br>
<p>Henry Warner Slocum (1827–1894), Union general in the American Civil War, USA Representative from New York</p><br>
<p>Ole Singstad (1882–1969), Norwegian-American civil engineer, designed Lincoln Tunnel and others</p><br>
<p>Francis Barretto Spinola (1821–1891), first Italian-American elected to the USA House of Representatives</p><br>
<p>Emma Stebbins (1815–1882), artist, sculptor of Bethesda Fountain</p><br>
<p>George Steers(1819-1856), designer of the Yacht America, winner of the first America&#39;s Cup.</p><br>
<p>Henry Steinway (1797–1871), founder of Steinway & Sons, piano manufacturers</p><br>
<p>William Steinway (1836–1896), son of Henry Steinway, and founder of Steinway, New York</p><br>
<p>John Austin Stevens Jr. (1827–1910), founder of Sons of the Revolution</p><br>
<p>James S. T. Stranahan (1808–1898), "Father of Prospect Park", instrumental promoter of the park, the Brooklyn Bridge, and the consolidation of Brooklyn into Greater New York</p><br>
<p>Francis Scott Street (1831–1883), co-owner of Street & Smith publishers</p><br>
<p>Silas Stringham (1798–1876), long serving United States Navy officer during the American Civil War and War of 1812</p><br>
<p>George Crockett Strong (1832–1863), Union brigadier general in the American Civil War</p><br>
<p>Thomas William "Fightin&#39; Tom" Sweeny (1820–1892), Irish immigrant and American Civil War general</p><br>
<p>Richard Termini Sr. (1929–1982), Father of musician Richard Termini</p><br>
<p>John Thomas (1805–1871), founder of The Christadelphians</p><br>
<p>Louis Comfort Tiffany (1848–1933), artist</p><br>
<p>Alfred Toftenes (1881–1918), Norwegian Chief Officer blamed for the collision that sank the Empress of Ireland</p><br>
<p>Matilda Tone (or Mathilda) (1769–1849), widow of Irish rebel Wolfe Tone</p><br>
<p>George Francis Train (1829–1904), railroad promoter</p><br>
<p>Juan Trippe (1899–1981), airline pioneer, headed Pan Am from 1927 to 1968</p><br>
<p>Robert Troup (1756–1832), Revolutionary War hero, New York State assemblyman and Judge; body moved to Green-Wood in 1872</p><br>
<p>William Magear "Boss" Tweed (1823–1878), notorious New York political boss, member of the USA House of Representatives and New York State Senate</p><br>
<p>Camilla Urso (Camille Urso) (1842–1902), French violinist</p><br>
<p>Steven C. Vincent (1955–2005), American journalist and author kidnapped and murdered in Iraq August 2005</p><br>
<p>Leopold von Gilsa (1824–1870), American Civil War colonel and brigade commander</p><br>
<p>Charles S. Wainwright (1826–1907), American Civil War colonel and artillery officer</p><br>
<p>Hugo Wesendonck (1817–1900) Founder of the Germania Life Insurance Company, now The Guardian Life Insurance Company of America</p><br>
<p>Henry John Whitehouse (1803–1874), Episcopal Bishop</p><br>
<p>Thomas R. Whitney (1807–1858), member of the USA House of Representatives from New York</p><br>
<p>Barney Williams (1824–1876), Irish-American actor-comedian</p><br>
<p>Beekman Winthrop (1874–1940), governor of Puerto Rico from 1904 to 1907, and later an Assistant Secretary of the Treasury</p><br>
<p>Jonathan Young (1826–1885), United States Navy commodore</p><br>
<p>William West Durant (1850–1934) son of Thomas Clark Durant and designer and developer of camps in the Adirondack Great Camp style</p><br>
<p>European_Beech_Tree_and_Mausoleums_at_Green-Wood_Cemetery,_Brooklyn,_NY_-_September_19,_2015.jpgEuropean beech tree and mausoleums</p><br>
<p>Largest_Tulip_Tree_at_Green-Wood_Cemetery,_Brooklyn,_NY_-_September_19,_2015.jpgLargest tulip tree in the cemetery</p><br>
<p>Ginkgo_Tree,_Green-Wood_Cemetery,_Brooklyn,_NY_-_September_19,_2015.jpgLarge ginkgo tree</p><br>
<p>Camperdown_Elm_Tree,_Green-Wood_Cemetery,_Brooklyn,_NY_-_September_19,_2015.jpgCamperdown elm tree</p><br>
<p>Two_Old_Sassafras_Trees,_Green-Wood_Cemetery,_Brooklyn,_NY_-_September_19,_2015.jpgTwo old sassafras trees</p><br>
<p>Green-Wood Cemetery Tranquility Garden koi pond.jpgKoi pond in the Tranquility Garden section of the Cemetery</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>In the season 2 episode of Daredevil "Penny and Dime," the cemetery is where Matt Murdock brings a wounded Frank Castle after rescuing him from the Kitchen Irish. Matt is later shown standing on top of the entrance archway while the police are arresting Frank.</p><br>
<p>In season 1 of Iron Fist, the cemetery is the location of a memorial to Danny Rand and his family.</p><br>
<p>Zilker Metropolitan Park is a recreational area in south Austin, Texas at the juncture of Barton Creek and the Colorado River that comprises over 350 acre of publicly owned land. It is named after its benefactor, Andrew Jackson Zilker, who donated the land to the city in 1917. The land was developed into a park during the Great Depression in the 1930s. Today the park serves as a hub for many recreational activities and the hike and bike trail around Lady Bird Lake, both of which run next to the park. The large size of the park makes it a capable venue for large scale events such as the Austin City Limits Music Festival and the Zilker Park Kite Festival. The park was listed in the National Register of Historic Places on 1997.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The land surrounding Barton Springs was claimed by its namesake, William Barton, in the 1830s for his cattle ranch. In the 1860s it was acquired by the Rabb family, who operated mills on Barton Creek. In the early twentieth century Andrew Jackson Zilker bought a 350 acre plot of land between the Colorado River and Barton Creek, including the Springs, and used the spring water in his ice-making business. Zilker sold his land to the City of Austin in a series of sales in 1917, 1923 and 1931; he donated the proceeds of the sale to a trust dedicated to funding Austin&#39;s public schools.</p><br>
<p>In the 1930s the city transformed the ranch into a space for public recreation, building park amenities and buildings with help from the Civil Works Administration. Barton Springs Pool was given a concrete dam and an enlarged swimming area. In 1934 the park was named Zilker Metropolitan Park, after its donor and patron.</p><br>
<h2>Attractions</h2><br>
<p>In addition to general-purpose lawns, sports fields, historical markers, concession stands and picnic areas, the park includes numerous public attractions. The Zilker Botanical Garden features several independently maintained gardens located near the center of the park and hosts the Zilker Gardens Festival every spring. The Austin Nature & Science Center offers ecological exhibits, nature hike trails, and children&#39;s educational programming. The Umlauf Sculpture Garden adjoins the southeast end of the park, displaying sculptural works by artist Charles Umlauf and others. The Zilker Hillside Theater hosts regular performances by local theatre companies, including free "Shakespeare in the Park" every May and an annual summer musical. Barton Springs Pool adjoins the park on the east, offering public swimming; other water activities are available in Barton Creek. The Beverly S. Sheffield Education Center by Barton Springs Pool offers exhibits about the natural history of the Edwards Aquifer that feeds Barton Springs. Every winter the 155 ft Zilker Holiday Tree is illuminated, along with a Trail of Lights display. The Zilker Zephyr gauge miniature railway carries passengers on a tour around the park.</p><br>
<p>The park&#39;s amenities and wide open spaces allow it to host a variety of large events each year. Most notably, the Austin City Limits Music Festival fills the park for two weekends each fall with numerous live musical performances by prominent artists.</p><br>
<p>The Old Faithful Inn is a hotel located in Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming, United States, with a view of the Old Faithful Geyser. The Inn has a multi-story log lobby, flanked by long frame wings containing guest rooms.</p><br>
<p>With its log and limb lobby and massive (500-ton, 85-foot) stone fireplace, the inn is an example of the "Golden Age" of rustic resort architecture, a style which is also known as National Park Service Rustic. It is rare in that it is one of the few log hotels still standing in the United States, and was the first of the great park lodges of the American west.</p><br>
<p>Initial construction was carried out over the winter of 1903–1904, largely using locally obtained materials including lodgepole pine and rhyolite stone. When the Old Faithful Inn first opened in the spring of 1904, it boasted electric lights and steam heat.</p><br>
<p>The structure is the largest log hotel in the world; possibly even the largest log building in the world. In 2007 the American Institute of Architects conducted a survey to determine the 150 favorite buildings in America; the Old Faithful Inn ranked 36. The Inn, which was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1987, is itself part of the Old Faithful Historic District. Old Faithful Inn is a member of Historic Hotels of America, the official program of the National Trust for Historic Preservation.</p><br>
<h2>Design</h2><br>
<p>The inn&#39;s architect was 29-year-old Robert Reamer, an architect for the Yellowstone Park Company, which was affiliated with the Northern Pacific Railway. Reamer was hired by Harry W. Child, the president of the Yellowstone Park Company, who had met Reamer in San Diego through mutual acquaintances. Reamer designed the lobby and the initial phase of guest rooms, known as the Old House, which was built in 1903-1904, much of it in the long winter. The east wing was extended in 1913-14, and the west wing in 1927, creating a single structure almost 700 ft long. The Old House is rotated 90 degrees with respect to Old Faithful so that a view of the geyser is framed by the entrance porch for arriving visitors. The porch roof provides a viewing platform for viewing eruptions of Old Faithful and other geysers, while the main facade faces Geyser Hill across the Firehole River, where the old Circuit Road once ran through the geyser basin.</p><br>
<p>The central feature of the Old House is a tall gabled log structure housing the lobby, dominated by a deep, steeply-pitching shingled roof. The Old House uses load-bearing log lower exterior walls with a log pole interior framework supporting seven stories, six of which are the roof structure. The upper gable walls are of milled lumber framing with shingle sheathing. The front slope of the shingled roof is accented by shed and gabled dormers, some of which are purely decorative. Both interior and exterior framing is supported by twisted or curved branches, giving the entire structure a strongly rustic air. There are two levels of balconies, the lower encircling the lobby and the upper on two sides. Stairs climb from the second balcony to a platform in the framing known as the "Crow&#39;s Nest" which once was used by musicians to entertain guests, then on to the crown of the gable 92 ft above the lobby floor. The entire structure is crowned by a roof walk that once held searchlights to illuminate Old Faithful Geyser at night. The original guest wings are 3-1/2 stories tall on either side of the lobby.</p><br>
<p>Offset to the southeast corner, the stone fireplace measures 16 ft square at the base. It features four main hearths, one on each face, with smaller hearths, each with a flue, at the corners. The stone extends to the roof, and until it was damaged by earthquake, a brick flue extended above the roof, covered in log cribbing. An ironwork clock decorates the north face of the upper chimney in the lobby. The fireplace is centered in a shallow depression in the lobby floor that sets the area around its hearths apart from the rest of the lobby. Custom ironwork, most notable in the main entrance door and the clock, was forged at the site by an ironmonger named Colpitts.</p><br>
<p>The dining room extends to the south of the lobby, with log scissors trusses supporting a more shallowly-pitched roof at right angles to the lobby roof. The dining room has its own stone fireplace, less massive than the lobby&#39;s, but still large. The Old House guest rooms retain much of their original character.</p><br>
<p>The east and west wings were purposely designed by Reamer to be less prominent than the central house. The wings are three to four stories in height with a mansarded top floor and a flat roof. The east wing is straight, originally with 100 rooms. The west wing is Y-shaped, with 150 guest rooms as built. The interiors of the wings are unremarkable compared with the Old House.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Old Faithful Inn replaced the Upper Geyser Basin Hotel, also known as the "Shack Hotel", which had burned down. The Northern Pacific Railroad, in the form of the Yellowstone Park Association operating company, was required by the terms of its concession to build a new hotel no closer than 1/8 mile of Old Faithful, a stipulation the Yellowstone Park Association observed to the letter. An initial design was prepared by architect A.W. Spalding in 1898, producing a design typical of the time, a turreted Queen Anne style hotel. The design was approved by the Park Service, but construction never started. Child instead hired Reamer to design a much more radical building with antecedents in the rustic camps of the Adirondacks. Design work took place in 1902, and construction started in 1903, with work continuing through the winter to open in 1904. The original cost of the Inn was about $140,000, using materials gathered from within the park. The hotel was furnished for another $25,000. Most of the logs came from a location about 8 mi south of Old Faithful, where a temporary sawmill produced boards as needed. Stone came from the Black Sand Basin and from a site along the road to Craig Pass about five miles to the east. The unusually-shaped log brackets were collected from the surrounding forests.</p><br>
<p>The Inn has been expanded and modified several times. In 1913 the East Wing was added to the 120-room original structure, and in 1922 the dining room was enlarged. In 1927-1928 the West Wing was built, and the front of the main building extended. All of these modifications were carried out under the supervision of the original architect, Robert Reamer. A 1927 addition to the dining room has since become home to the Bear Pit Lounge. Installed in 1936 just off the lobby, the first Bear Pit featured carved and inlaid wood panels with humorous scenes involving bears, created at Reamer&#39;s suggestion. When the lounge was converted to a coffee shop, the lounge was relocated to the dining room extension and the panels were replicated in etched glass in 1988. Some of the original panels remain in the snack bar. In 1940 the interior logs were peeled, revealing patterns created by bark beetles, and in 1966 the logs were cleaned and varnished. An automatic fire sprinkler system was added in 1948, together with fire doors in the wings.</p><br>
<p>Some of the original furnishings remain, while care has been taken with newer pieces to remain compatible with the rustic design. Some furniture at the Old Faithful Inn was salvaged from the Canyon Hotel before it was demolished. particularly the Limbert chairs in the dining room extension and some of the reading desks on the balcony.</p><br>
<p>The facility was closed for the duration of the Second World War (along with all other hotels in the park) and the park was unprepared for the huge number of visitors in 1946.</p><br>
<p>On August 17, 1959 the Old Faithful Inn was shaken by the 1959 Hebgen Lake earthquake which collapsed the dining room fireplace chimney and damaged the huge lobby fireplace, reducing the number of usable hearths from eight to two. The building was partially shaken loose from its foundations, and access to some of the upper levels had to be restricted due to safety concerns. There were no deaths or serious injuries at the Inn as a result of the earthquake. The dining room fireplace was finally rebuilt in 1985, but the outside portion of the lobby fireplace chimney was replaced with a single steel pipe, visible in many exterior photos.</p><br>
<p>In 1988, the inn was seriously threatened by the North Fork Fire, but was saved by the actions of firefighters, volunteers, and a sprinkler system which was installed on the roof the previous year.</p><br>
<p>The high-range rooms in the East and West wing additions were renovated in 1993 and 1994. In celebration of the Inns centennial in 2004, a major multi-million dollar renovation project of the original "Old House" started construction with the help of A&E Architects of Missoula, Montana. The project was broken into 3 construction phases with the final phase scheduled for completion in June 2008. When finished, the building will meet current building codes and will have a complete infrastructure upgrade including new electrical, plumbing, and heating systems as well as major structural upgrades. In addition to the replacement of the systems of the building, finishes will be cleaned and restored while maintaining as much of the historic material as possible. Wood and wool floor finishes, bathroom tile and fixtures, new replica historic hardware, and an interpretation of the original lavatory stands and basins by Charles Limbert will be installed. Original elements including the recessing of the floor and hearth of the large fireplace in the main lobby and reconstruction of log walls removed in the lobby will correct multiple modifications and changes over the years and bring the Inn back to match more closely Reamers original design. Great care and sensitivity has been taken to integrate systems and restore and install original and new finishes to maintain the appearance and layout of the Inn during the period immediately after it opened its doors in 1904.</p><br>
<h3>Notable visitors</h3><br>
<p>Its notable visitors are numerous, even preceding its construction. Chester Arthur camped outside the East Wing area in 1883, Theodore Roosevelt visited the site in 1903, Warren Harding stayed in 1923, Calvin Coolidge in 1927, and Franklin Roosevelt in the fall of 1937.</p><br>
<h3>Christmas in August</h3><br>
<p>According to park lore, a freak blizzard struck the Old Faithful Inn on August 25 sometime in the early twentieth century. Rather than lament the fact that they were isolated, the guests were said to have taken the opportunity to celebrate Christmas in August.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>Old Faithful Inn was featured in the movie Yellowstone (1936).</p><br>
<h2>Influences</h2><br>
<p>The Old Faithful Inn had a pronounced effect on the built environment in North American national parks, influencing the development of the National Park Service Rustic style that became widespread during the 1920s. Although it was not the first hotel with a multi-story lobby, the concept became widespread in the mid-20th century in urban hotels.</p><br>
<h2>Historic designations</h2><br>
<p>The Old Faithful Inn was placed on the National Register of Historic Places on July 23, 1973. It is the central element in the Old Faithful Historic District, which includes the Old Faithful Lodge on the other side of Old Faithful. The Lodge, which was designed by Gilbert Stanley Underwood to provide dining and guest services to a community of tent cabins, is lower and more understated in nature, but compatibly rustic.</p><br>
<p>Old Faithful is a cone geyser located in Yellowstone National Park in Wyoming, United States. It was named in 1870 during the Washburn-Langford-Doane Expedition and was the first geyser in the park to receive a name. It is a highly predictable geothermal feature, and has erupted every 44 to 125 minutes since 2000. The geyser and the nearby Old Faithful Inn are part of the Old Faithful Historic District.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>On the afternoon of September 18, 1870, the members of the Washburn-Langford-Doane Expedition traveled down the Firehole River from the Kepler Cascades and entered the Upper Geyser Basin. The first geyser that they saw was Old Faithful. Nathaniel P. Langford wrote in his 1871 Scribner&#39;s account of the expedition:</p><br>
<p>In the early days of the park, Old Faithful was often used as a laundry:</p><br>
<h2>Eruptions</h2><br>
<p>More than 1,000,000 eruptions have been recorded. Harry Woodward first described a mathematical relationship between the duration and intervals of the eruptions in 1938. The reliability of Old Faithful can be attributed to the fact that it is not connected to any other thermal features of the Upper Geyser Basin.</p><br>
<p>Eruptions can shoot 3700 to 8400 USgal of boiling water to a height of 106 to 185 ft lasting from to 5 minutes. The average height of an eruption is 145 ft. Intervals between eruptions can range from 35 to 120 minutes, averaging 66.5 minutes in 1939, slowly increasing to an average of 90 minutes apart today, which may be the result of earthquakes affecting subterranean water levels. The disruptions have made earlier mathematical relationships inaccurate, but have actually made Old Faithful more predictable in terms of its next eruption.</p><br>
<p>The time between eruptions has a bimodal distribution, with the mean interval being either 65 or 91 minutes, and is dependent on the length of the prior eruption. Within a margin of error of ±10 minutes, Old Faithful will erupt either 65 minutes after an eruption lasting less than minutes, or 91 minutes after an eruption lasting more than minutes.</p><br>
<h2>Measurement</h2><br>
<p>Between 1983 and 1994, four probes containing temperature and pressure measurement devices and video equipment were lowered into Old Faithful. The probes were lowered as deep as 72 ft. Temperature measurements of the water at this depth was 244 &deg;F, the same as was measured in 1942. The video probes were lowered to a maximum depth of 42 ft to observe the conduit formation and the processes that took place in the conduit. Some of the processes observed include fog formation from the interaction of cool air from above mixing with heated air from below, the recharge processes of water entering into the conduit and expanding from below, and entry of superheated steam measuring as high as 265 &deg;F into the conduit.</p><br>
<p>Lake Travis is a reservoir on the Colorado River in central Texas in the United States. The reservoir was formed in 1942 by the construction of Mansfield Dam on the western edge of Austin, Texas by the Lower Colorado River Authority , and was built specifically to contain floodwaters in a flash-flood prone region. During its construction, after a severe flood in July 1938, the height of the dam was raised to add storage capacity for floodwaters.</p><br>
<p>Lake Travis has the largest storage capacity of the seven reservoirs known as the Highland Lakes, and stretches 65 miles (105 km) upriver from western Travis County in a highly serpentine course into southern Burnet County to Max Starcke Dam, southwest of the town of Marble Falls. The Pedernales River, a major tributary of the Colorado River, flows into the lake from the southwest in western Travis County. The lake is used for flood control, water supply, electrical power generation, and recreation.</p><br>
<h2>Recreational uses</h2><br>
<p>Lake Travis is well-known for its outdoor recreation opportunities, including fishing, boating, swimming, scuba diving, picnicking, camping, and zip lining. Another recreational use, nude sunbathing and swimming, is permitted in Hippie Hollow Park. This picturesque park is located near the eastern end of Lake Travis and holds the distinction of being the only legal clothing optional park in Texas. Lake Travis is generally considered one of the clearest lakes in Texas. It is a vital water supply for the nearby city of Austin, Texas and the surrounding metropolitan area.</p><br>
<h3>Fatality rankings</h3><br>
<p>In ranking lakes in Texas for accidental fatalities, Lake Travis was in first-place in 2011 and tied for second-place for total deaths over the years 2000-2015.</p><br>
<h3>Fish populations</h3><br>
<p>Lake Travis has been stocked with several species of fish intended to improve the utility of the reservoir for recreational fishing. Fish present in Lake Travis include largemouth bass, guadalupe bass, white bass, striped bass, catfish and sunfish.</p><br>
<p>In spring 2008 there were several reports of leeches residing in Lake Travis. The leeches are generally harmless to humans but can be a nuisance.</p><br>
<h2>Lake levels</h2><br>
<p>Lake Travis is considered "full" (at maximum desired capacity) when the lakes water level is at 681 ft above mean sea level (msl). Above 681 ft, flood control gates at Mansfield Dam are opened under the direction of the USA Army Corps of Engineers. The level of the lake can vary dramatically—with an over 96-foot range between its historical high and low—depending on the amount of rainfall in the Colorado River basin upstream. The historic high level on the lake was 710.4 ft above msl on December 25, 1991, a little less than four feet below the dams top/spillway at 714 ft above msl. The historic low was 614.2 ft above msl on August 14, 1951.</p><br>
<h3>Droughts</h3><br>
<p>The extreme drought of 2008-2009 brought the lake to its fourth lowest level at 626.09 ft above msl in November 2009. The second lowest level was 615.02 ft above msl on November 8, 1963. During the 2010–13 Southern United States drought, levels went as low as 618 feet, making it the third lowest level ever. The LCRA, a public utility whose responsibilities include the management of Lake Travis, makes water level reports available on the internet. In April 2016, the lake returned to its full capacity at 681 ft.</p><br>
<h3>Floods</h3><br>
<p>Lake Travis serves as the primary flood control reservoir of the Highland Lake chain. The LCRA, under advisement from the USA Army Corps of Engineers, is responsible for floodgate operations at Mansfield Dam. Ideally, this is done in a time-delayed fashion after a major rainfall so as to either mitigate or outright prevent downstream flooding which otherwise would have been both immediate and extreme without the dam&#39;s presence. As Lake Travis levels increase during major floods, floodgate operations are conducted to protect property around Lake Travis as well as the dam itself.</p><br>
<p>While the dams physical design assists in its own protection during floods, extensive spillway operations, a worst-case scenario which has not happened in the lakes history, could undermine the dams base and affect its overall integrity. Under such conditions, operations are primarily intended to protect the dam, and lake water may be released to the dams full, 24-floodgate capacity—regardless of downstream effects—to prevent the catastrophic loss of the dam. Including its hydroelectric generators but not the spillway, at 681 feet above msl the dam&#39;s total maximum discharge capacity is more than 130,000 cubic feet per second (cfs); a bit under one million gallons per second. Rates of discharge increase as water levels/pressures increase.</p><br>
<p>Lake Austin, formerly Lake McDonald, is a water reservoir on the Colorado River in Austin, Texas. The reservoir was formed in 1939 by the construction of Tom Miller Dam by the Lower Colorado River Authority. Lake Austin is one of the seven Highland Lakes created by the LCRA, and is used for flood control, electrical power generation, and recreation.</p><br>
<h2>Hydrology</h2><br>
<p>Lake Austin is a part of the Colorado River; it begins below Mansfield Dam and is principally fed by the outflow of Lake Travis. The lake meanders generally from northwest to southeast, with few significant tributaries; the largest are Bull Creek, entering from the north near where Loop 360 spans the lake at the Pennybacker Bridge, and Bee Creek, entering from the west just above Tom Miller Dam, where the lake ends. Its outflow through Tom Miller Dam then becomes the principal inflow for Lady Bird Lake.</p><br>
<p>Lake Austin is maintained as a constant-level lake by releases of water from Lake Travis upstream. The other Highland Lake reservoirs on the Colorado River are Lake Buchanan, Inks Lake, Lake LBJ, Lake Marble Falls, and Lake Travis upstream, and Lady Bird Lake downstream.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The first lake on the same site was named Lake McDonald, a reservoir formed by the construction of Austin Dam between 1890 and 1893. In 1900 a heavy rainstorm overwhelmed and destroyed the first Austin Dam, causing extensive flooding. The dam began to be rebuilt in 1915, but repairs were abandoned because of a contract dispute, and the unfinished dam was again destroyed in a heavy storm later that year. In 1938 the Lower Colorado River Authority began building the Tom Miller Dam; the dam was completed and the lake filled in 1939.</p><br>
<h2>Recreational uses</h2><br>
<p>Lake Austin is a popular fishing and boating destination. The lake is considered to have an excellent stock of largemouth bass.</p><br>
<h2>Fish and wildlife populations</h2><br>
<p>Lake Austin has been stocked with several species of fish intended to improve the utility of the reservoir for recreational fishing. Fish present in Lake Austin include largemouth bass, catfish, and sunfish. Lake Austin is one of the Texas Highland Lakes infested with hydrilla, a non-native aquatic plant species. The Lower Colorado River Authority has intentionally lowered the water levels in the lake in the months of January and February so that freezing air temperatures might destroy substantial portions of the hydrilla in the lake each winter. As of March 2014, hydrilla has been completely eliminated from the lake through the stocking of Asian Grass Carp by the City of Austin.</p><br>
<p>The Howden Reservoir is a Y-shaped reservoir, top one of the three in the Upper Derwent Valley, England. The western half of the reservoir lies in Derbyshire, whereas the eastern half is in Sheffield, South Yorkshire. The county border runs through the middle of the reservoir, following the original path of the River Derwent. The longest arm is around 1.25 miles  in length. The reservoir is bounded at the southern end by Howden Dam; below this, the River Derwent flows immediately into Derwent Reservoir and subsequently the Ladybower Reservoir. Other tributaries include the River Westend, Howden Clough and Linch Clough.</p><br>
<p>Work commenced on the dams construction on 16 July 1901 and completed in July 1912. The works involved constructing a temporary village at Birchinlee, or "Tin Town", for the workers, a temporary railway line from the main line at Bamford, construction of a link aqueduct to the Derwent Dam. The dam is of solid masonry construction, and 117 ft, 1,080 ft, and impounds 1,900,000 impgal of water, from a catchment area of 5,155 acre. The workers who died during the construction of the dam were buried in Bamford Church.</p><br>
<p>To the east of the reservoir stands Featherbed Moss, one of the highest tops in the area at 545 m, and one of several tops of that name in the area. This is not to be confused with the more well-known Featherbed Moss on the Pennine Way between Kinder Scout and Bleaklow.</p><br>
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<p>Ladybower Reservoir is a large Y-shaped reservoir, the lowest of three in the Upper Derwent Valley in Derbyshire, England. The River Ashop flows into the reservoir from the west; the River Derwent flows south, initially through Howden Reservoir, then Derwent Reservoir, and finally through Ladybower Reservoir.</p><br>
<p>The area is now a tourist attraction, with the Fairholmes visitors&#39; centre located at the northern tip of Ladybower.</p><br>
<h2>Design and construction</h2><br>
<p>Ladybower was built between 1935 and 1943 by the Derwent Valley Water Board to supplement the other two reservoirs in supplying the water needs of the East Midlands. It took a further two years to fill (1945). The dam differs from the Howden Reservoir and Derwent Reservoir in that it is a clay-cored earth embankment, and not a solid masonry dam. Below the dam is a cut-off trench 180 ft deep and 6 ft wide filled with concrete, stretching 500 ft into the hills each side, to stop water leaking round the dam. The dam wall was built by Richard Baillie and Sons, a Scottish company. The two viaducts, Ashopton and Ladybower, needed to carry the trunk roads over the reservoir were built by the London firm of Holloways, using a steel frame clad in concrete. The project was delayed when the Second World War broke out in 1939, making labour and raw materials scarce. But construction was continued due to the strategic importance of maintaining supplies. King George VI, accompanied by Queen Elizabeth, formally opened the reservoir on 25 September 1945.</p><br>
<p>During the 1990s the wall was raised and strengthened to reduce the risk of over-topping in a major flood. The original dam wall contains 100,000 tons of concrete, over one million tons of earth and 100,000 tons of clay for the core. The upstream face is stone faced. Materials were brought to the site on the Derwent Valley Water Board&#39;s own branch line and their sidings off the main line in the Hope Valley.</p><br>
<p>The dam&#39;s design is unusual in having two totally enclosed bellmouth overflows (locally named the "plugholes") at the side of the wall. These are stone and of 80 ft diameter with outlets of 15 ft diameter. Each discharges via its own valve house at the base of the dam. The overflows originally had walkways around them but they were dismantled many years ago. The bell mouths are often completely out of the water and are only rarely submerged, often after heavy rainfall or flooding.</p><br>
<h2>Water usage</h2><br>
<p>The water is used for river control and to compensate for the water retained by all three dams, along with supply into the drinking water system and hydroelectricity generation. Drinking water must be pumped to treatment works rather than using gravity flow as in the other two reservoirs, increasing costs. The drinking water is treated at Bamford water treatment works by Severn Trent Water. Treated water flows south down the 28 mi long Derwent Valley Aqueduct to a covered service reservoir at Ambergate to supply clean water to the cities of Nottingham, Derby and Leicester in the East Midlands of England. The aqueduct passes through the park of Chatsworth House. The path of the aqueduct is marked by a series of valve houses built of stone and domed steel access chambers. A tunnel carries some of the water from the Derwent Valley eastwards through the hill and into the lower of the two Rivelin Dams to supply Sheffield.</p><br>
<h2>Ashopton Village</h2><br>
<p>The building of the reservoir resulted in the drowning of the villages of Ashopton and Derwent (including Derwent Woodlands church and Derwent Hall). Ashopton stood roughly where the road to the Snake Pass met the Snake valley. The buildings in Ashopton were demolished before the reservoir was filled, but much of the structure of Derwent village was still visible during a dry summer some 14 years later. The narrow stone Packhorse Bridge over the Derwent was removed and rebuilt at the head of the Howden reservoir. The clock tower of the church had been left standing and the upper part of it was visible above the water level until 1947, when it was seen as a hazard and demolished with explosives on 15 December.</p><br>
<p>Mount Parnassus  is a mountain of limestone in central Greece that towers above Delphi, north of the Gulf of Corinth, and offers scenic views of the surrounding olive groves and countryside. According to Greek mythology, this mountain was sacred to Dionysus and the Dionysian mysteries; it was also sacred to Apollo and the Corycian nymphs, and it was the home of the Muses. The mountain was also favored by the Dorians. It is suggested that the name derives from parnassas, the possessive adjective of the Luwian word parna meaning house, or specifically temple, so the name effectively means the mountain of the house of the god.</p><br>
<h2>Geology and geography</h2><br>
<p>Parnassus is one of the largest mountainous regions of Mainland Greece and one of the highest Greek mountains. It spreads over three municipalities, namely of Boeotia, Phthiotis and Phocis, where its largest part lies. Its altitude is 2,547 meters and its highest peak is Liakouras. To the Northeast it is connected to Giona and to the south with Kirphe. Its name is due to the homonymous hero of the Greek mythology, son of Cleopompus (or Poseidon) and Cleodora, who had built on the mountain a city which was destroyed in the Deluge of Deukalion. Etymological analysis, however, shows a prehellenic origin of the name, relating it to the Pelasgians, and it appears to be from the Anatolian language Luwian.</p><br>
<p>The mountain is delimited to the east by the valley of the Boeotian Kephissus and to the West by the valley of Amfissa. The geological particularity of Parnassus is its rich deposits of bauxite, which has led to their systematic mining since the end of the 1930s, resulting in ecological damage to part of the mountain.</p><br>
<h2>Mythology</h2><br>
<p>Mount Parnassus is named after Parnassos, the son of the nymph Kleodora and the man Kleopompus. A city, of which Parnassos was leader, was flooded by torrential rains. The citizens ran from the flood, following wolves&#39; howling, up the mountain slope. There the survivors built another city, and called it Lykoreia, which in Greek means "the howling of the wolves." While Orpheus was livingThe Greek Gods by Hoopes And Evslin,, 1995, page 77</p><br>
<p>His father was a Thracian king; His mother the muse Calliope. For a while he lived on Parnassus with his mother and his eight beautiful aunts, and there met Apollo who was courting the laughing muse Thalia. Apollo was taken with Orpheus, gave him his little golden lyre, and taught him to play. His mother taught him to make verses for singing.</p><br>
<p>with his mother and his eight beautiful aunts on Parnassus, he met Apollo who was courting the laughing muse Thalia. Apollo became fond of Orpheus and gave him a little golden lyre, and taught him to play it. Orpheus&#39;s mother taught him to make verses for singing. As the Oracle of Delphi was sacred to the god Apollo, so did the mountain itself become associated with Apollo. According to some traditions, Parnassus was the site of the fountain Castalia and the home of the Muses; according to other traditions, that honor fell to Mount Helicon, another mountain in the same range. As the home of the Muses, Parnassus became known as the home of poetry, music, and learning.</p><br>
<p>Parnassus was also the site of several unrelated minor events in Greek mythology.</p><br>
<p>In some versions of the Greek flood myth, the ark of Deucalion comes to rest on the slopes of Parnassus. This is the version of the myth recounted in Ovid&#39;s Metamorphoses.</p><br>
<p>Orestes spent his time in hiding on Mount Parnassus.</p><br>
<p>Parnassus was sacred to the god Dionysus.</p><br>
<p>The Corycian Cave, located on the slopes of Parnassus, was sacred to Pan and to the Muses.</p><br>
<p>In Book 19 of The Odyssey, Odysseus recounts a story of how he was gored in the thigh during a boar hunt on Mount Parnassus in his youth.</p><br>
<p>Parnassus was also the home of Pegasus, the winged horse of Bellerophon.</p><br>
<h2>As metaphor</h2><br>
<p>This relation of the mountain to the Muses offered an instigation to its more recent "mystification", with the poetic-artistic trend of the 19th century called "Parnassism". The Parnassic movement was established in France in the decade 1866–1876 as a reaction to Romanticism with a return to some classicistic elements and belief in the doctrine "Art for the Art", first expressed by Theophile Gautier. The periodical Modern Parnassus issued for the first time by Catul Mendes and Xavier Ricard contained direct references to Mt. Parnassus and its mythological feature as habitation of the Muses. The Parnassists, who did not exceed a group of twenty poets, exercised a relatively strong influence on the cultural life of Paris, particularly due to their tenacity on perfection of rhyme and vocabulary. Parnassism influenced several French poets, such as Baudelaire, but it also exercised an influence on Modern Greek poets, particularly Kostis Palamas and Gryparis.</p><br>
<p>The name of the mountain (Mont Parnasse) was also given to a quarter of Paris on the left banc of the Seine, where artists and poets used to gather and recite their poems in public. Montparnasse is nowadays one of the most renowned quarters of the city and in its cemetery many personalities of the arts and culture are buried.</p><br>
<p>Parnassus figures earlier in Jonathan Swift&#39;s "The Battle of the Books" (1697) as the site of an ideological war between the ancients and the moderns.</p><br>
<h2>The National Park</h2><br>
<p>The significant biodiversity, both in flora and in fauna, led the authorities to the establishment of the National Park of Parnassus in 1938, the year when the systematic mining of bauxite started. The Park comprises a landscape of 36,000 acres spreading on the mountainous region between Delphi, Arachova and Agoriani. Among the endemic flora species under protection are the Cephalonian fir tree and the Parnassian peony (Paeonia parnassica). In the Park sojourn prey birds and wolves, boars, badgers and weasels.</p><br>
<h2>Parnassos Ski Resort</h2><br>
<p>The slopes of Mount Parnassus are composed of two ski sections, Kellaria and Fterolakka, which together make up the largest ski center in Greece. A smaller ski center (only two drag lifts) called Gerontovrahos is across a ridge from Kellaria. Parnassus is mined for its abundant supply of bauxite which is converted to aluminium oxide and then to aluminium.</p><br>
<p>The construction of the ski resort started in 1975 and was completed in 1976, when the first two drag lifts operated in Fterolaka. In 1981 the construction of a new ski area was completed in Kelaria, while in winter season 1987–1988 the chair lift Hermes started operating and connected the two ski areas. Both ski resorts continued expanding and in 1993 the first high-speed quad in Greece was installed, named Hercules. In 2014–2015 two new hybrid lifts were installed along with a new eight-seater, replacing the old infrastructure.</p><br>
<p>Today the Ski Center operates with 16 lifts, two hybrid ski lifts which combine an eight-seater Cabin and a six-seater chair, an eight-seater Cabin, a 4-seater chair lift, a 2-seater chair lift, 6 drag lifts and four baby lifts. The ski center boasts 25 marked ski runs and about 15 ski routes of 36 km total length while the longest run is 4 km.</p><br>
<p>Nicomedia  was an ancient Greek city in what is now Turkey.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>It was founded in 712/11 BC as a Megarian colony and was originally known as Astacus (; Ancient Greek: Ἀστακός, "lobster"). After being destroyed by Lysimachus, it was rebuilt by Nicomedes I of Bithynia in 264 BC under the name of Nicomedia, and has ever since been one of the most important cities in northwestern Asia Minor. The great military commander Hannibal Barca came to Nicomedia in his final years and committed suicide in nearby Libyssa (Diliskelesi, Gebze). The historian Arrian was born there.</p><br>
<p>Nicomedia was the metropolis of Bithynia under the Roman Empire, and Diocletian made it the eastern capital city of the Roman Empire in 286 when he introduced the Tetrarchy system. Nicomedia remained as the eastern (and most senior) capital of the Roman Empire until co-emperor Licinius was defeated by Constantine the Great at the Battle of Chrysopolis (Üsküdar) in 324. Constantine mainly resided in Nicomedia as his interim capital city for the next six years, until in 330 he declared the nearby Byzantium (which was renamed Constantinople) the new capital. Constantine died in a royal villa in the vicinity of Nicomedia in 337. Owing to its position at the convergence of the Asiatic roads leading to the new capital, Nicomedia retained its importance even after the foundation of Constantinople.</p><br>
<p>A major earthquake, however, on 24 August 358, caused extensive devastation to Nicomedia, and was followed by a fire which completed the catastrophe. Nicomedia was rebuilt, but on a smaller scale. In the sixth century under Emperor Justinian I the city was extended with new public buildings. Situated on the roads leading to the capital, the city remained a major military center, playing an important role in the Byzantine campaigns against the Caliphate.</p><br>
<p>In 451, the local bishopric was promoted to a Metropolitan see under the jurisdiction of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople. The metropolis of Nicomedia was ranked 7th in the Notitiae Episcopatuum among the metropolises of the patriarchate. In the eighth century the Emperor Constantine V established his court there for a time, when plague broke out in Constantinople and drove him from his capital in 746–47. From the 840s on, Nicomedia was the capital of the thema of the Optimatoi. By that time, most of the old, seawards city had been abandoned and is described by the Persian geographer Ibn Khurdadhbih as lying in ruins, with settlement restricted to the hilltop citadel. In the 1080s, the city served as the main military base for Alexios I Komnenos in his campaigns against the Seljuk Turks, and the First and Second Crusades both encamped there.</p><br>
<p>The city was briefly held by the Latin Empire following the fall of Constantinople to the Fourth Crusade in 1204: in late 1206 the seneschal Dietrich von Los made it his base, converting the church of Saint Sophia into a fortress; however, the Crusader stronghold was subjected to constant raids by the Emperor of Nicaea Theodore I Laskaris, during which von Los was captured by Nicaean soldiers; by the summer of 1207 Emperor Henry of Flanders agreed to evacuate Nicomedia in exchange for von Los and other prisoners Emperor Theodore held. The city remained in Byzantine control for over a century after that, but following the Byzantine defeat at the Battle of Bapheus in 1302, it was threatened by the rising Ottoman beylik. The city was twice blockaded by the Ottomans (in 1304 and 1330) before finally succumbing in 1337.</p><br>
<h2>Notable natives and residents</h2><br>
<p>Diocletian</p><br>
<p>Arrian (Lucius Flavius Arrianus Xenophon)</p><br>
<p>Saint George</p><br>
<p>Saint Barbara</p><br>
<p>Saint Panteleimon</p><br>
<p>Adrian of Nicomedia</p><br>
<p>Anthimus of Nicomedia</p><br>
<p>Arsacius of Nicomedia</p><br>
<p>Cecropius of Nicomedia</p><br>
<p>Juliana of Nicomedia</p><br>
<p>Theopemptus of Nicomedia</p><br>
<p>Theophylact of Nicomedia</p><br>
<p>Michael Psellos (11th-century) Greek writer, philosopher, politician, and historian</p><br>
<p>Maximus Planudes (13th-century) Greek scholar, anthologist, translator and grammarian</p><br>
<p>Aaron ben Elijah Karaite Jewish Philosopher and Commentator. Author of Keter Torah, Gan Eden, and &#39;Etz Hayyim</p><br>
<p>The River Dane is a tributary of the River Weaver that originates in the Peak District area of England. It forms the border between first Cheshire and Derbyshire on the west and east, and then between Cheshire and Staffordshire where it then flows north-west through Cheshire before meeting the Weaver near Northwich.</p><br>
<p>The river rises close to the source of the River Goyt just to the south west of Buxton, on Axe Edge Moor. Flowing southwest, it forms county borders for around 10 mi before flowing west through Congleton and past Holmes Chapel.</p><br>
<p>The point on the river where the three counties meet, at Panniers&#39; Pool Bridge, is called the Three Shire Heads (often wrongly Three Shires Head). Three Shire Heads is the most northerly point in Staffordshire.</p><br>
<p>Passing just to the north of Middlewich, it merges first with the River Croco near the site of the old Roman fort in Harbutt&#39;s Field, and then with the River Wheelock near the aqueduct carrying the Trent and Mersey Canal, and runs the remaining 5 mi north to Northwich where it flows into the River Weaver.</p><br>
<p>The name of the river (earlier Daven) is probably from the Old Welsh dafn, meaning a "drop or tickle", implying a slow-moving river.</p><br>
<h2>Tributaries</h2><br>
<p>Gad Brook (R)</p><br>
<p>Eldersbriar Brook (L)</p><br>
<p>Puddlinglake Brook (R)</p><br>
<p>River Wheelock (L)</p><br>
<p>Hoggins Brook (L)</p><br>
<p>Fowle Brook (L)</p><br>
<p>River Croco (L)</p><br>
<p>Sanderson&#39;s Brook (L)</p><br>
<p>* Small Brook (L)</p><br>
<p>Swettenham Brook</p><br>
<p>Midge Brook (Ls)</p><br>
<p>* Chapel Brook (R)</p><br>
<p>** Dighill Brook (R)</p><br>
<p>Clonter Brook (Rs)</p><br>
<p>Loach Brook</p><br>
<p>Dairy Brook (L)</p><br>
<p>The Howty (L)</p><br>
<p>Dane in Shaw Brook (L)</p><br>
<p>Biddulph Brook</p><br>
<p>Timbers Brook (R)</p><br>
<p>Cow Brook (R)</p><br>
<p>Ravensclough Brook (L)</p><br>
<p>Shell Brook (R)</p><br>
<p>Clough Brook (R)</p><br>
<p>Highmoor Brook (R)</p><br>
<p>* Rabb Brook (R)</p><br>
<p>* Oaken Brook (R)</p><br>
<p>Cumberland Brook (L)</p><br>
<p>Yarnshaw Brook (L)</p><br>
<p>* Correction Brook (L)</p><br>
<p>Tor Brook (R)</p><br>
<p>Black Brook</p><br>
<p>Flash Brook (L)</p><br>
<p>Far Brook (R)</p><br>
<p>Robins Brook (R)</p><br>
<p>Three Shires Brook (L)</p><br>
<p>The Washington Monument is an obelisk on the National Mall in Washington, D.C., built to commemorate George Washington, once commander-in-chief of the Continental Army and the first President of the United States. Located almost due east of the Reflecting Pool and the Lincoln Memorial, the monument, made of marble, granite, and bluestone gneiss, is both the worlds tallest stone structure and the worlds tallest obelisk, standing 554 ft tall according to the National Geodetic Survey  or 555 ft tall according to the National Park Service .</p><br>
<p>It is the tallest monumental column in the world if all are measured above their pedestrian entrances.</p><br>
<p>Construction of the monument began in 1848, and was halted from 1854 to 1877 due to a lack of funds, a struggle for control over the Washington National Monument Society, and the intervention of the American Civil War. Although the stone structure was completed in 1884, internal ironwork, the knoll, and other finishing touches were not completed until 1888. A difference in shading of the marble, visible approximately 150 ft or 27% up, shows where construction was halted and later resumed with marble from a different source. The original design was by Robert Mills, but he did not include his proposed colonnade due to a lack of funds, proceeding only with a bare obelisk. Despite many proposals to embellish the obelisk, only its original flat top was altered to a pointed marble pyramidion, in 1884. The cornerstone was laid on July 4, 1848; the first stone was laid atop the unfinished stump on August 7, 1880; the capstone was set on December 6, 1884; the completed monument was dedicated on February 21, 1885; and officially opened October 9, 1888. Upon completion, it became the world&#39;s tallest structure, a title previously held by the Cologne Cathedral. The monument held this designation until 1889, when the Eiffel Tower was completed in Paris, France.</p><br>
<p>The monument was damaged during the 2011 Virginia earthquake and Hurricane Irene in the same year and remained closed to the public while the structure was assessed and repaired. After 32 months of repairs, the National Park Service and the Trust for the National Mall reopened the Washington Monument to visitors on May 12, 2014.</p><br>
<p>The monument was closed again in September 2016 due to reliability issues with the elevator system. On December 2, 2016, the National Park Service announced that the monument would be closed until 2019 in order to modernize the elevator. The $2 to 3 million project will correct the elevators ongoing mechanical, electrical and computer issues, which have shuttered the monument since August 17. The National Park Service has also requested funding in its FY 2017 Presidents Budget Request to construct a permanent screening facility for the Washington Monument.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Rationale</h3><br>
<p>George Washington (1732–99), hailed as the father of his country, and as the leader who was "first in war, first in peace and first in the hearts of his countrymen" (in eulogy by Maj. Gen. Light-Horse Harry Lee at Washington&#39;s funeral, December 26, 1799), was the dominant military and political leader of the new United States of America from 1775 to 1799. Even his former enemy King George III called him "the greatest character of the age."</p><br>
<p>At his death in 1799 he left a critical legacy; he exemplified the core ideals of the American Revolution and the new nation: republican virtue and devotion to civic duty. Washington was the unchallenged public icon of American military and civic patriotism. He was also identified with the Federalist Party, which lost control of the national government in 1800 to the Jeffersonian Republicans, who were reluctant to celebrate the hero of the opposition party.</p><br>
<h3>Proposals for a memorial</h3><br>
<p>Starting with victory in the Revolution, there were many proposals to build a monument to Washington. After his death, Congress authorized a suitable memorial in the national capital, but the decision was reversed when the Democratic-Republican Party (Jeffersonian Republicans) took control of Congress in 1801. The Republicans were dismayed that Washington had become the symbol of the Federalist Party; furthermore the values of Republicanism seemed hostile to the idea of building monuments to powerful men. They also blocked his image on coins or the celebration of his birthday. Further political squabbling, along with the North-South division on the Civil War, blocked the completion of the Washington Monument until the late 19th century. By that time, Washington had the image of a national hero who could be celebrated by both North and South, and memorials to him were no longer controversial.</p><br>
<p>As early as 1783, the Continental Congress had resolved "That an equestrian statue of George Washington be erected at the place where the residence of Congress shall be established." The proposal called for engraving on the statue which explained it had been erected "in honor of George Washington, the illustrious Commander-in-Chief of the Armies of the United States of America during the war which vindicated and secured their liberty, sovereignty, and independence." Currently, there are two equestrian statues of President Washington in Washington, D.C. One is located in Washington Circle at the intersection of the Foggy Bottom and West End neighborhoods at the north end of the George Washington University, and the other is in the gardens of the National Cathedral.</p><br>
<p>Ten days after Washingtons death, a Congressional committee recommended a different type of monument. John Marshall, a Representative from Virginia (who later became Chief Justice of the United States) proposed that a tomb be erected within the Capitol. However, a lack of funds, disagreement over what type of memorial would best honor the countrys first president, and the Washington family&#39;s reluctance to move his body prevented progress on any project.</p><br>
<h3>Design</h3><br>
<p>Progress toward a memorial finally began in 1833. That year a large group of concerned citizens formed the Washington National Monument Society. In 1836, after they had raised $28,000 in donations, they announced a competition for the design of the memorial.</p><br>
<p>On September 23, 1835, the board of managers of the society described their expectations:</p><br>
<p>The society held a competition for designs in 1836. In 1845 the winner was announced to be architect Robert Mills.</p><br>
<p>Criticism of Mills design and its estimated price tag of more than $1 million (in 1848, ) caused the society to hesitate. On April 11, 1848 the society decided, due to a lack of funds, to build only the obelisk. Mills 1848 obelisk was to be 500 feet tall, 55 ft square at the base and 35 ft square at the top. It had two massive doorways, each 15 ft high and 6 ft wide, on the east and west sides of its base. This original design conformed to a massive temple which was to have surrounded the base of the obelisk, but because it was never built, the architect of the second phase of construction Thomas Lincoln Casey smoothed down the projecting jambs, pediment and entablature in 1885, walled up the west entrance with marble forming an alcove, and reduced the east entrance to 8 ft high. The western alcove has contained a bronze statue of Washington since 1992–93. Also during 1992–93 a limestone surround was installed at the east elevator entrance decorated with a winged sun and asps to mimic Mills&#39; 1848 design.</p><br>
<h3>Construction</h3><br>
<p>The Washington Monument was originally intended to be located at the point at which a line running directly south from the center of the White House crossed a line running directly west from the center of the Capitol. Pierre (Peter) Charles LEnfants 1791 "Plan of the city intended for the permanent seat of the government of the United States..." designated this point as the location of the equestrian statue of George Washington that the Continental Congress had voted for in 1783. The ground at the intended location proved to be too unstable to support a structure as heavy as the planned obelisk, so the monument&#39;s location was moved 390 ft east-southeast.</p><br>
<h4>Excavation and initial construction</h4><br>
<p>Construction of the monument began in 1848 with the excavation of the site, the laying of the cornerstone on the prepared bed, and laying the original foundation around and on top of the cornerstone, before the construction of its massive walls began the next year. Even though slave labor is not mentioned, no paid laborers whatsoever are listed among the small paid labor force of 21 used to construct the foundation in 1848, which included 14 stonemasons and 2 stonecutters. In contrast, the maximum work force during the second phase was 170, including 100 stonecutters, with laborers second in number. Washington Monument Historian John Steele Gordon stated "I can’t say for certain, but the stonemasonry was pretty highly skilled, so it’s unlikely that slaves would’ve been doing it. The stones were cut by stonecutters, which is highly skilled work; and the stones were hoisted by means of steam engines, so you’d need a skilled engineer and foreman for stuff like that. Tending the steam engine, building the cast-iron staircase inside — that wasn’t grunt work." According to historian Jesse Holland, it is very likely that African-American slaves were among the construction workers, given that slavery prevailed in Washington and its surrounding states at that time, and slaves were commonly used in public and private construction.</p><br>
<p>Gordons arguments are valid for the second phase (1879–84) when every stone laid required a skilled stonemason. However, Hollands views are valid for the first phase (1848–54) because much of its construction only required unskilled manual labor, assisted only by a steam engine to lift the stones because many weighed several tons each. Only a small number of stones used in the first phase required a skilled stonemason, the marble blocks on the outer surface of the monument (their inner surfaces were left very rough) and those gneiss stones that form the rough inner walls of the monument (all other surfaces of those inner stones within the walls were left jagged). The vast majority of all gneiss stones laid during the first phase, those between the outer and inner surfaces of the walls, from very large to very small jagged stones, form a pile of rubble held together by a large amount of mortar. The top surface of this rubble can be seen below at Walls in an 1880 drawing made just before the polished/rough marble and granite stones used in the second phase were laid atop it. The original foundation below the walls was made of layered gneiss rubble, but without the massive stones used within the walls. Most of the gneiss stones used during the first phase were obtained from quarries in the Potomac Valley. Only the marble stones of the first and second phases came from Maryland quarries north of Baltimore.</p><br>
<p>On July 4, 1848, the Freemasons, an organization to which Washington belonged, laid the cornerstone (symbolically, not physically). According to Joseph R. Chandler:</p><br>
<p>Two years later, on a torrid July 4, 1850, George Washington Parke Custis, the adopted son of George Washington and grandson of Martha Washington, dedicated a stone from the people of the District of Columbia to the Monument at a ceremony that President Zachary Taylor attended five days before he died from food poisoning.</p><br>
<h4>Donations run out</h4><br>
<p>Construction continued until 1854, when donations ran out and the monument had reached a height of 152 ft. At that time a memorial stone that was contributed by Pope Pius IX, called the Pope&#39;s Stone, was destroyed by members of the anti-Catholic, nativist American Party, better known as the "Know-Nothings", during the early morning hours of March 6, 1854 (a priest replaced it in 1982). This caused public contributions to the Washington National Monument Society to cease, so they appealed to Congress for money.</p><br>
<p>The request had just reached the floor of the House of Representatives when the Know-Nothing Party seized control of the Society on February 22, 1855. Congress immediately tabled its expected contribution of $200,000 to the Society, effectively halting the appropriation. During its tenure, the Know-Nothing Society added only two courses of masonry, or four feet, to the monument using rejected masonry it found on site, increasing the height of the shaft to 156 feet. The original Society refused to recognize the illegal takeover, so two Societies existed side by side until 1858. With the Know-Nothing Party disintegrating and its inability to secure contributions toward building the monument, it surrendered its possession of the monument to the original Society on October 20, 1858. To prevent future takeovers, Congress incorporated the Society on February 22, 1859.</p><br>
<h4>Post–Civil War</h4><br>
<p>Interest in the monument grew after the Civil War. Engineers studied the foundation several times to determine if it was strong enough. In 1876, the Centennial of the Declaration of Independence, Congress agreed to appropriate another $200,000 to resume construction.</p><br>
<p>Before work could begin again, arguments about the most appropriate design resumed. Many people thought a simple obelisk, one without the colonnade, would be too bare. Architect Mills was reputed to have said omitting the colonnade would make the monument look like "a stalk of asparagus&quot another critic said it offered "little... to be proud of."</p><br>
<p>This attitude led people to submit alternative designs. Both the Washington National Monument Society and Congress held discussions about how the monument should be finished. The society considered five new designs, concluding that the one by William Wetmore Story seemed "vastly superior in artistic taste and beauty." Congress deliberated over those five as well as Mills&#39; original. While it was deciding, it ordered work on the obelisk to continue. Finally, the members of the society agreed to abandon the colonnade and alter the obelisk so it conformed to classical Egyptian proportions.</p><br>
<h4>Resumption</h4><br>
<p>Construction resumed in 1879 under the direction of Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Lincoln Casey of the USA Army Corps of Engineers. Casey redesigned the foundation, strengthening it so it could support a structure that ultimately weighed more than 40,000 tons. The first stone atop the unfinished stump was laid August 7, 1880 in a small ceremony attended by President Rutherford B. Hayes, Casey and a few others. The president placed a small coin on which he had scratched his initials and the date in the bed of wet cement at the 150-foot level before the first stone was laid on top of it. Casey found 92 memorial stones (presented stones) already inlaid into the interior walls of the first phase of construction. Before construction continued he temporarily removed eight stones at the 150-foot level so that the walls at that level could be sloped outward, producing thinner second-phase walls. He inserted those stones and most of the remaining memorial stones stored in the lapidarium into the interior walls during 1885–89. The bottom third of the monument is a slightly lighter shade than the rest of the construction because the marble was obtained from different quarries.</p><br>
<p>The building of the monument proceeded quickly after Congress had provided sufficient funding. In four years, it was completed, with the 100-ounce (2.83 kg) aluminum apex/lightning-rod being put in place on December 6, 1884. Two years later, the Hall–Héroult process made aluminum easier to produce and the price of aluminum plummeted, making the once-valuable apex more ordinary, though it still provided a lustrous, non-rusting apex that served as the original lightning rod. The monument opened to the public on October 9, 1888.</p><br>
<h3>Dedication</h3><br>
<p>The Monument was dedicated on February 21, 1885. President Arthur proclaimed: I do now.... in behalf of the people, receive this monument.... and declare it dedicated from this time forth to the immortal name and memory of George Washington.</p><br>
<p>After the speeches Lieutenant-General Philip Sheridan led a procession, which included the dignitaries and the crowd, past the Executive Mansion, now the White House, then via Pennsylvania Avenue to the east main entrance of the Capitol, where President Arthur received passing troops. Then, in the House Chamber, the president, his Cabinet, diplomats and others listened to Representative John Davis Long read a speech written a few months earlier by Robert C. Winthrop, formerly the Speaker of the House of Representatives when the cornerstone was laid 37 years earlier, but now too ill to personally deliver his speech.</p><br>
<h3>Later history</h3><br>
<p>At the time of its completion, it was the tallest building in the world, a title it retained until the Eiffel Tower was completed in 1889. It is the tallest building in Washington, D.C. The Heights of Buildings Act of 1910 restricts new building heights to no more than 20 ft greater than the width of the adjacent street. This monument is vastly taller than the obelisks around the capitals of Europe and in Egypt and Ethiopia, but ordinary antique obelisks were quarried as a monolithic block of stone, and were therefore seldom taller than approximately 100 ft.</p><br>
<p>The Washington Monument attracted enormous crowds before it officially opened. For six months after its dedication, 10,041 people climbed the 898 steps and 50 landings to the top. After the elevator that had been used to raise building materials was altered to carry passengers, the number of visitors grew rapidly, and an average of 55,000 people per month were going to the top by 1888. The annual visitor count peaked between 1979 and 1997, where an average of 1.1 million visitors visited annually; however, from 2005 to 2010, the Washington Monument has had an average of only 631,000 visitors each year. As with all historic areas administered by the National Park Service, the national memorial was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on October 15, 1966.</p><br>
<p>In the early 1900s, material started oozing out between the outer stones of the first construction period below the 150-foot mark, and was referred to by tourists as "geological tuberculosis". This was caused by the weathering of the cement and rubble filler between the outer and inner walls. As the lower section of the monument was exposed to cold and hot and damp and dry weather conditions, the material dissolved and worked its way through the cracks between the stones of the outer wall, solidifying as it dripped down their outer surface.</p><br>
<p>For ten hours in December 1982, the Washington Monument and eight tourists were held hostage by a nuclear arms protester, Norman Mayer, claiming to have explosives in a van he drove to the monument&#39;s base. USA Park Police shot and killed Mayer. The monument was undamaged in the incident, and it was discovered later that Mayer did not have explosives. After this incident, the surrounding grounds were modified in places to restrict the possible unauthorized approach of motor vehicles.</p><br>
<p>The monument underwent an extensive restoration project between 1998 and 2001. During this time it was completely covered in scaffolding designed by the American architect Michael Graves (who was also responsible for the interior changes). The project included cleaning, repairing and repointing the monuments exterior and interior stonework. The stone in publicly accessible interior spaces was encased in glass to prevent vandalism, while new windows with narrower frames were installed (to increase the viewing space). New exhibits celebrating the life of George Washington, and the monuments place in history, were also added.</p><br>
<p>A temporary interactive visitors center, dubbed the "Discovery Channel Center" was also constructed during the project. The center provided a simulated ride to the top of the monument, and shared information with visitors during phases in which the monument was closed. The majority of the projects phases were completed by summer 2000, allowing the monument to reopen July 31, 2000. The monument temporarily closed again on December 4, 2000 to allow a new elevator cab to be installed, completing the final phase of the restoration project. The new cab included glass windows, allowing visitors to see some of the 194 memorial stones embedded in the monuments walls. The installation of the cab took much longer than anticipated, and the monument did not reopen until February 22, 2002. The final cost of the restoration project was $10.5 million.</p><br>
<p>On September 7, 2004 the monument closed for a $15 million renovation, which included numerous security upgrades and redesign of the monument grounds by landscape architect Laurie Olin. The renovations were due partly to security concerns following the September 11 attacks and the start of the War on Terror. The monument reopened April 1, 2005, while the surrounding grounds remained closed until the landscape was finished later that summer.</p><br>
<h4>2011 earthquake damage</h4><br>
<p>On August 23, 2011, the Washington Monument sustained damage during the 5.8 magnitude 2011 Virginia earthquake; over 150 cracks were found in the monument. A block in the pyramidion also was partially dislodged, and pieces of stone, stone chips, mortar, and paint chips came free of the monument and "littered" the interior stairs and observation deck. The Park Service said it was bringing in two structural engineering firms (Wiss, Janney, Elstner Associates, Inc. and Tipping Mar Associates) with extensive experience in historic buildings and earthquake-damaged structures to assess the monument.</p><br>
<p>Officials said an examination of the monument&#39;s exterior revealed a "debris field" of mortar and pieces of stone around the base of the monument, and several "substantial" pieces of stone had fallen inside the memorial. Park Service inspectors also discovered that the elevator system had been damaged, and was operating only to the 250 ft level, but was soon repaired.</p><br>
<p>On September 27, 2011, Denali National Park ranger Brandon Latham arrived to assist four climbers belonging to a "difficult access" team from Wiss, Janney, Elstner Associates. The reason for the inspection was the park agencys suspicion that there were more cracks on the monuments upper section not visible from the inside. The agency said it filled the cracks that occurred on August 23. After Hurricane Irene hit the area on August 27, water was discovered inside the memorial, leading the Park Service to suspect there was more undiscovered damage. Wiss, Janney, Elstner climber Dave Megerle took three hours to set up the rappelling equipment and set up a barrier around the monument&#39;s lightning rod system atop the pyramidion; it was the first time the hatch in the pyramidion had been open since 2000.</p><br>
<p>The external inspection of the monument was completed October 5, 2011. In addition to the 4 ft long west crack, the inspection found several corner cracks and surface spalls (pieces of stone broken loose) at or near the top of the monument, and more loss of joint mortar lower down the monument. The full report was issued December 2011. Bob Vogel, Superintendent of the National Mall and Memorial Parks, emphasized that the monument was not in danger of collapse. "It&#39;s structurally sound and not going anywhere", he told the national media at a press conference on September 26, 2011.</p><br>
<p>More than $200,000 was spent between August 24 and September 26 inspecting the structure. The National Park Service said that it would soon begin sealing the exterior cracks on the monument to protect it from rain and snow.</p><br>
<p>On July 9, 2012, the National Park Service announced that the monument would be closed for repairs until 2014. The National Park Service hired construction management firm Hill International in conjunction with joint-venture partner Louis Berger Group to provide coordination between the designer, Wiss, Janney, and Elstner Associates, the general contractor Perini, and numerous stakeholders. NPS said a portion of the plaza at the base of the monument would be removed and scaffolding constructed around the exterior. In July 2013, lighting was added to the scaffolding. Some stone pieces saved during the 2011 inspection will be refastened to the monument, while "Dutchman patches" will be used in other places. Several of the stone lips that help hold the pyramidion&#39;s 2,000 lb exterior slabs in place were also damaged, so engineers will install metal brackets to more securely fasten them to the monument.</p><br>
<p>The National Park Service reopened the Washington Monument to visitors on May 12, 2014, eight days ahead of schedule. with taxpayers funding $7.5 million of the cost and David Rubenstein funding the other $7.5 million. At the reopening Interior Secretary Sally Jewell, Today show weatherman Al Roker, and American Idol Season 12 winner Candice Glover were present.</p><br>
<p>The monument continues to be plagued by problems since the earthquake, including in January 2017 when the lights illuminating it went out.</p><br>
<h2>Components</h2><br>
<h3>Cornerstone</h3><br>
<p>The cornerstone was laid with great ceremony at the northeast corner of the lowest course or step of the old foundation on July 4, 1848. Robert Mills, the architect of the monument, stated in September 1848, "The foundations are now brought up nearly to the surface of the ground; the second step being nearly completed, which covers up the corner stone."</p><br>
<p>The cornerstone was a 24,500 lb marble block 2.5 ft high and 6.5 ft square with a large hole for a zinc case filled with memorabilia. The hole was covered by a copper plate inscribed with the date of the Declaration of Independence (July 4, 1776), the date the cornerstone was laid (July 4, 1848), and the names of the managers of the Washington National Monument Society. The memorabilia in the zinc case included items associated with the monument, the city of Washington, the national government, state governments, benevolent societies, and George Washington, plus miscellaneous publications, both governmental and commercial, a coin set, and a bible, totaling 73 items or collections of items, as well as 71 newspapers containing articles relating to George Washington or the monument.</p><br>
<p>The ceremony began with a parade of dignitaries in carriages, marching troops, fire companies, and benevolent societies. A long oration was delivered by the Speaker of the House of Representatives Robert C. Winthrop. Then, the cornerstone was pronounced sound after a Masonic ceremony using George Washington&#39;s Masonic gavel, apron and sash, as well as other Masonic symbols. In attendance were President James K. Polk and other federal, state and local government officials, Elizabeth Schuyler Hamilton, Mrs. Dolley Madison, Mrs. John Quincy Adams, and George Washington Parke Custis, among 15,000 to 20,000 others, including a bald eagle. The ceremony ended with fireworks that evening.</p><br>
<h3>Memorial stones</h3><br>
<p>States, cities, foreign countries, benevolent societies, other organizations, and individuals have contributed 194 memorial stones, all inserted into the east and west interior walls above stair landings or levels for easy viewing, except one on the south interior wall between stairs that is difficult to view. The sources disagree on the number of stones for two reasons: whether one or both "height stones" are included, and stones not yet on display at the time of a source&#39;s publication cannot be included. The "height stones" refer to two stones that indicate height: during the first phase of construction a stone with an inscription that includes the phrase "from the foundation to this height 100 feet" was installed just below the 80–90-foot stairway and high above the 60–70-foot stairway; during the second phase of construction a stone with a horizontal line and the phrase "top of statue on Capitol" was installed on the 330-foot level.</p><br>
<p>The Historic Structure Report (HSR, 2004) named 194 "memorial stones" by level, including both height stones. The Historic American Buildings Survey (HABS, 1994) showed the location of 193 "memorial stones", but did not describe or name any. HABS showed both height stones, but did not show one stone not yet installed in 1994. Olszewski (1971) named 190 "memorial stones" by level, including the Capitol stone but not the 100-foot stone. Olszewski did not include three stones not yet installed in 1971.</p><br>
<p>Of 194 stones, 95 are marble, 41 are granite, 30 are limestone, 9 are sandstone, with 19 miscellaneous types, including combinations of the aforesaid and those whose materials are not identified. Unusual materials include native copper (Michigan), pipestone (Minnesota), petrified wood (Arizona), and jadeite (Alaska). The stones vary in size from about 1.5 ft square (Carthage) to about 6 x (Philadelphia and New York City).</p><br>
<p>Utah contributed one stone as a territory and another as a state, both with inscriptions that include its pre-territorial name, Deseret, both located on the 220-foot level.</p><br>
<p>A stone at the 240-foot level of the monument is inscribed in Fy Iaith, Fy Ngwlad, Fy Nghenedl, Cymry am byth (Our language, our country, our birthplace, Wales forever). The stone, imported from Wales, was donated by Welsh citizens of New York. Two other stones were presented by the Sunday Schools of the Methodist Episcopal Church in New York and the Sabbath School children of the Methodist Episcopal Church in Philadelphia—the former quotes from the Bible verse Proverbs 10:7, "The memory of the just is blessed".</p><br>
<p>Another inscription, this one sent by the Ottoman government,</p><br>
<p>combines the works of two eminent calligraphers: an imperial tughra by Mustafa Rakıms student Haşim Efendi, and an inscription in jalī talīq script by Kadıasker Mustafa İzzet Efendi, the calligrapher who wrote the giant medallions at Hagia Sophia in Istanbul.</p><br>
<p>One stone was donated by the Ryukyu Kingdom and brought back by Commodore Matthew C. Perry, but never arrived in Washington (it was replaced in 1989).</p><br>
<p>Many of the stones donated for the monument carried inscriptions which did not commemorate George Washington. For example, one from the Templars of Honor and Temperance stated "We will not make, buy, sell, or use as a beverage, any spiritous or malt liquors, Wine, Cider, or any other Alcoholic Liquor." (George Washington himself had owned a whiskey distillery which operated at Mount Vernon after he left the presidency.)</p><br>
<h3>Aluminum apex</h3><br>
<p>The aluminum apex, at the time a rare metal as valuable as silver, was cast by William Frishmuth of Philadelphia. Spectral analysis in 1934 showed that it was composed of 97.87% aluminum with the rest impurities. It has a shallow depression in its base to match a slightly raised area atop the small upper surface of the marble capstone, which aligns the sides of the apex with those of the capstone, and the downward protruding lip around that area prevents water from entering the joint. It has a large hole in the center of its base to receive a threaded 1.5 in diameter copper rod which attaches it to the monument and used to form part of the lightning protection system.</p><br>
<p>The four faces of the external aluminum apex all bear inscriptions in cursive writing (Snell Round hand), which are incised into the aluminum. The apex was inscribed on site after it was delivered. Most inscriptions are the original 1884 inscriptions, except for the top three lines on the east face which were added in 1934. A wide gold-plated copper band that held eight lightning rods covered most of the inscriptions from 1885 until it was removed and discarded in 2013. The inscriptions that it covered were damaged and are now illegible. Only the top four and bottom two lines of the north face, the first and last lines of the west face, the top four lines of the south face, and the top three lines of the east face are still legible. Even though the inscriptions are no longer covered, no attempt was made to repair them when the apex was accessible in 2013. The following table shows legible inscriptions in and illegible inscriptions in. No colors appear on the actual apex. The inscriptions occupy the lower portions of triangles, thus the inscribed upper lines are necessarily shorter than some lower lines.</p><br>
<p>Although most printed sources, Harvey (1903), Olszewski (1971), Torres (1984), and the Historic Structure Report (2004), refer to the original 1884 inscriptions, the National Geodetic Survey (2015) refers to both the 1884 and 1934 inscriptions. All sources print them according to their own editorial rules, resulting in excessive capitalization (Harvey, Olszewski, and NGS) and inappropriate line breaks. No printed source uses cursive writing, although pictures of the apex clearly show that it was used for both the 1884 and 1934 inscriptions.</p><br>
<p>A replica displayed on the 490-foot level uses totally different line breaks than those on the external apex — it also omits the 1934 inscriptions. In October 2007, it was discovered that the display of this replica was positioned so that the Laus Deo (Latin for "praise be to God") inscription could not be seen and Laus Deo was omitted from the placard describing the apex. The National Park Service rectified the omission by creating a new display.</p><br>
<h3>Lightning protection</h3><br>
<p>The pyramidion, the pointed top 55 ft of the monument, was originally designed with an 8.9 in tall inscribed aluminum apex which served as a single lightning rod, installed December 6, 1884. Six months later on June 5, 1885 lightning damaged the marble blocks of the pyramidion, so a net of gold-plated copper rods supporting 200 3 in gold-plated, platinum-tipped copper points spaced every 5 ft was installed over the entire pyramidion. The original net included a gold-plated copper band attached to the aluminum apex by four large set screws which supported eight closely spaced vertical points that did not protrude above the apex. In 1934 these eight short points were lengthened to extend them above the apex by 6 in. In 2013 this original system was removed and discarded. It was replaced by only two thick solid aluminum lightning rods protruding above the tip of the apex by about 1 ft attached to the east and west sides of the marble capstone just below the apex.</p><br>
<p>Until it was removed, the original lightning protection system was connected to the tops of the four iron columns supporting the elevator with large copper rods. Even though the aluminum apex is still connected to the columns with large copper rods, it is no longer part of the lightning protection system because it is now disconnected from the present lightning rods which shield it. The two lightning rods present since 2013 are connected to the iron columns with two large braided aluminum cables leading down the surface of the pyramidion near its southeast and northwest corners. They enter the pyramidion at its base, where they are tied together (electrically shorted) via large braided aluminum cables encircling the pyramidion 2 ft above its base. The bottom of the iron columns are connected to ground water below the monument via four large copper rods that pass through a 2 ft square well half filled with sand in the center of the foundation. The effectiveness of the lightning protection system has not been affected by a significant draw down of the water table since 1884 because the soil&#39;s water content remains roughly 20% both above and below the height of the water table.</p><br>
<h3>Walls</h3><br>
<p>During the first phase of construction (1848–54), the walls were built with bluestone gneiss rubble, ranging from very large irregular stones having a cross section of about 5 x down to spalls (broken pieces of stone) all embedded in a large amount of mortar. The outer surface is marble stones 14 to 18 in thick in 2 ft high courses or rows horizontally encircling the monument. Although each course contains both stretchers (stones parallel to the wall) and headers (stones projecting into the wall), about two to three times as many stretchers as headers were used. Their joints were so thin that some stones pressed on bare stone below them, breaking off many pieces since it was constructed. The batter or slope of the outer surface is 0.247 inches per foot (2.06 cm/m, 1°11&#39;). The inner surface has disorderly rows of smaller roughly dressed bluestone gneiss. The base of the first phase walls has an outer dimension of 55 ft square and a thickness of 15 ft. The interior well is 25 ft square and has square corners. The weight of the first phase walls up to 150 ft is 22,373 LT.</p><br>
<p>During the second phase (1879–84), the walls were constructed of smoothly dressed (ashlar) large marble and granite blocks (rectangular cuboids) laid down in an orderly manner (Flemish bond) with thick joints. Two-foot high marble surface stones, using an equal number of stretchers and headers, were backed by granite blocks from the 152-foot level (the first course above the rubble) to the 218-foot level, where marble headers become increasingly visible on the internal surface of the walls up to the 450-foot level, above which only marble stones are used.</p><br>
<p>Between the 150- and 160-foot levels the inner walls rapidly slope outward, increasing the shaft well from 25 feet 1 inch square to 31 ft square with a corresponding decrease in the thickness of the walls and their weight. The second phase walls at the 160-foot level were 8 ft thick, which, combined with the larger shaft well, yields an outer dimension of 48 ft square at that level. The top of the second phase walls are 34 ft square and 1 ft thick. The second phase interior walls have rounded (2 ft radii) corners. The weight of the second phase walls (from 150 feet to 500 feet) are 21,260 LT. The walls of the entire shaft (combined first and second phases) are 500 ft high.</p><br>
<p>The first phase of the walls was constructed under the direction of William Dougherty. Its white marble exterior came from the Texas quarry now adjacent to and east of north I-83 near the Warren Road exit in Cockeysville, Maryland. The quarry was named for the Texas Station (no longer extant) and 19th-century town on the Northern Central Railway. During the first phase it was operated by Thomas Symington, but is now operated by Lafarge and no longer produces building stone. The second phase of construction was under the direction of Lt Col/Col Thomas Lincoln Casey of the USA Army Corps of Engineers, who removed two defective courses added by the Know-Nothings and the last 152-foot course added by Dougherty before Casey began his construction. The next three courses of white marble (152 -) came from Sheffield, Massachusetts, while all courses above them came from the Beaver Dam quarry just west of the 19th-century town of Cockeysville. The latter quarry is located on Beaver Dam Road near its intersection with McCormick Road. During the second phase the quarry was operated by Hugh Sisson, but is now flooded, is called Beaverdam Pond, and is the home of the Beaver Dam Swimming Club. Both 19th-century towns are now within the city limits of Cockeysville.</p><br>
<h3>Pyramidion</h3><br>
<p>The marble capstone of the pyramidion is a truncated pyramid with a cubical keystone projecting from its base and a deep groove surrounding the keystone. The aluminum apex replaces its truncated top. The inside upper edges of the topmost slabs on the four faces of the pyramidion rest on the keystone and in the groove. It has a large vertical hole through which a 1.5 in threaded copper rod passes and screws into the base of the apex, which used to form part of its lightning protection system. The keystone and groove occupy so much of its base that only a small horizontal area near its outer edge remains. The weight of the capstone is transferred to both the inner and outer portions of the shiplap upper edges of the slabs. It weighs 3,300 lb, is 5 ft high from its base to its top, and is 3 ft square at its base.</p><br>
<p>The marble pyramidion has an extremely complex construction to save weight yet remain strong. Its surface slabs or panels are usually only 7 in thick (with small thick and thin portions) and generally do not support the weight of slabs above them, instead transferring their own weight via 1 ft wide internal marble ribs to the shaft&#39;s walls. The slabs are generally 7 ft wide and 4 ft high with a 2 in vertical overlap (shiplap) to prevent water from entering the horizontal joints. Twelve such courses, the internal ribs, the marble capstone, and the aluminum apex comprise the pyramidion. Its height is 55 ft. Its weight is 300 LT.</p><br>
<p>The observation floor (nominally the 500-foot level) is 499 ft above the entry lobby floor or lowest landing level. It is 1+1/4 in above the marble base of the pyramidion and the top of the shaft walls.</p><br>
<p>Four pairs of 3 ft wide observation windows are provided, spaced 4 ft apart, inner stone edge to edge, all just above the lowest course of slabs (504-foot level). Six are 1 ft high while two on the east face are 2 ft high for easier egress. All were originally provided with thin marble shutters in a bronze frame each of which could be opened inward, one left and the other right per wall. After two people committed suicide by jumping through the open windows in the 1920s, hinged horizontal iron bars were added to them in 1929. A ninth opening in a slab on the south face just below the capstone is provided for access to the outside of the pyramidion. It is covered by a stone slab which is internally removable. In 1931, four red aircraft warning lights were installed, one per face in one of its observation windows. Pilots complained that they could not be easily seen, so the monument was floodlit on all sides as well. In 1958, eight 14 in diameter holes for new red aircraft warning lights were bored, one above each window near the top edge of the fourth course of slabs (516-foot level) in the pyramidion. In 1958 the observation windows were glazed with shatterproof glass. In 1974–76, they were glazed with bulletproof glass and the shutters removed. New bulletproof glass was installed during 1997–2000.</p><br>
<p>The pyramidion has two inscriptions, neither of which is regarded as a memorial stone. One is the year "1884" on the underside of the cruciform keystone; the other is at the same level as that keystone on the north face of the west center rib containing the names and titles of the four highest ranked builders. Its inscription ("Chief Engineer...") is almost identical to the inscription on the south face of the aluminum apex except for "USA", which is part of the phrase "14th USA Infantry" in the inscription inside the pyramidion, but the apex has only "14th Infantry". Additionally, the internal inscription does not use cursive writing and all letters in all names are capitals.</p><br>
<h3>Foundation</h3><br>
<p>The first phase began with the excavation of about 7 ft of topsoil down to a level of loam, consisting of equal parts of sand and clay, hard enough to require picks to break it up. On this "bed of the foundation" the cornerstone was laid at the northeast corner of the proposed foundation. The rest of the foundation was then constructed of bluestone gneiss rubble and spalls, with every crevice filled with lime mortar. The dimensions of this old foundation were 23 ft high, 80 ft square at the base, and 58 ft square at the top, laid down in eight steps, similar to a truncated step pyramid. At the center of the foundation a brick-lined 2 ft square well was dug to a depth of 20 ft below the bed of the foundation to keep it dry and to supply water during construction.</p><br>
<p>During the second phase, after determining that the proposed weight of the monument was too great for the old foundation to safely bear, the thickness of the walls atop the unfinished stump was reduced and the foundation was strengthened by adding a large unreinforced concrete slab below the perimeter of the old foundation to increase the monuments load bearing area two and one half times. The slab was 13 ft thick, with an outer perimeter 126 ft square, an inner perimeter 44 ft square, with undisturbed loam inside the inner perimeter except for the water well. The area at the base of the second phase foundation is 15,992 ft&sup2;. The strengthened foundation (old foundation and concrete slab) has a total depth of 36 ft below the bottom of the lowest course of marble blocks (now below ground), and 38 ft below the entry lobby floor. Casey reported that nowhere did the load exceed 9 LT/sqft and did not exceed 3 LT/sqft near the outer perimeter. To properly distribute the load from the shaft to slab, about half by volume of the outer periphery of the old rubble foundation below its top step was removed. A continuous sloping unreinforced concrete buttress encircles what remains. The buttress is 100 ft square at its base, 64 ft square at its top, and 20 ft high. The perimeter of the original top step of the old rubble foundation rests on the larger top of the concrete buttress. Its slope (lower external angle from the vertical) is 49°. This buttress rests in a depression (triangular cross-section) on the top surface of the concrete slab. The slab was constructed by digging pairs of 4 ft wide drifts on opposite sides of the monuments center line to keep the monument properly balanced. The drifts were filled with unreinforced concrete with depressions or dowel stones on their sides to interlock the sections. An earthen terrace 60 ft wide with its top at the base of the walls and steep sides was constructed in 1880–81 over the reinforced foundation while the rest of the monument was being constructed. During 1887–88, a knoll was constructed around the terrace tapering out roughly 300 ft onto the surrounding terrain. This earthen terrace and knoll serves as an additional buttress for the foundation. The weight of the foundation is 36,912 LT, including earth and gneiss rubble above the concrete foundation that is within its outer perimeter.</p><br>
<h3>Stairs and elevator</h3><br>
<p>The monument is filled with ironwork, consisting of its stairs, elevator columns and associated tie beams, none of which supports the weight of the stonework. It was redesigned in 1958 to reduce congestion and improve the flow of visitors. Originally, visitors entered and exited the west side of the elevator on the observation floor, causing congestion. So the large landing at the 490-foot level was expanded to a full floor and the original spiral stair in the northeast corner between the 490- and 500-foot levels was replaced by two spiral stairs in the northeast and southeast corners. Now visitors exit the elevator on the observation floor, then walk down either spiral stair before reboarding the elevator for their trip back down.</p><br>
<p>The main stairs spiral up the interior walls from the entry lobby floor to the elevator reboarding floor at the 490-foot level. The elevator occupies the center of the shaft well from the entry lobby to the observation floor, with an elevator machine room (installed 1925–26) whose floor is 18 ft above the observation floor and an elevator pit (excavated 1879) whose floor is 9 ft below the entry lobby floor. The stairs and elevator are supported by four wrought iron columns each. The four supporting the stairs extend from the entry lobby floor to the observation floor and were set at the corners of a 15 ft square. The four supporting the elevator extend from the floor of the elevator pit to 14 ft above the observation floor and were set at the corners of a 9 ft square. The weight of the ironwork is 275 LT. Cast iron, wrought iron, and steel were all used. The two small spiral stairs installed in 1958 are aluminum.</p><br>
<p>Most landings occupy the entire east and west interior walls every 10 feet from and including the east landing at the 30-foot level up to the west landing at the 480-foot level, east then west alternately. Three stairs with small landings rise from the entry lobby floor to the 30-foot level successively along the north, west and south interior walls. Landings from the 30-foot level up to the 150-foot level are 3 ft by 25 ft, while landings from the 160-foot level to the 480-foot level are 7 ft by 31 ft. All stairs are on the north and south walls except for the aforementioned west stair between the 10- and 20-foot levels, and the two spiral stairs.</p><br>
<p>About one fourth of visitors chose to ascend the monument using the stairs when they were available. They were closed to up traffic in 1971, and then closed to all traffic except by special arrangement in 1976. The stairs had 898 steps until 1958, consisting of 18 risers in each of the 49 main stairs plus 16 risers in the spiral stair. Since 1958 the stairs have had 897 risers if only one spiral stair is counted because both spiral stairs now have 15 risers each. These figures do not include two additional steps in the entry passage that were covered up in 1975 by a ramp and its inward horizontal extension to meet the higher (since 1886) entry lobby floor. One step was 3.2 ft away from the outer walls and the other was at the end of the passage, 15 ft away from the outer walls.</p><br>
<p>As initially constructed, the interior was relatively open with two-rail handrails, but a couple of suicides and an accidental fall prompted the addition of tall wire screening (7 ft high with a large diamond mesh) on the inside edge of the stairs and landings in 1929. The original steam powered elevator, which took 10 to 12 minutes to ascend to the observation floor, was replaced by an electric elevator powered by an on-site dynamo in 1901 which took five minutes to ascend. The monument was connected to the electrical grid in 1923, allowing the installation of a modern electric elevator in 1925–26 which took 70 seconds. The latter was replaced in 1958 and again in 1998 by 70-second elevators. During 1997–2000, the wire screening at three platforms was replaced by large glass panels to allow visitors on the elevator to view three clusters of memorial stones that were synchronously lit as the elevator automatically slowed as it passed them during its descent.</p><br>
<h3>Miscellaneous details</h3><br>
<p>The total cost of the monument from 1848 to 1888 was $1,409,500. The weight of the above ground portion of the monument is 44,208 LT, whereas its total weight, including the foundation below ground and any earth above it that is within its outer perimeter is 81,120 LT. The total number of blocks in the monument, including all marble, granite and gneiss blocks, whether externally or internally visible or hidden from view within the walls or old foundation is over 36,000. The number of marble blocks externally visible is about 10,000.</p><br>
<p>The monument stands 554 ft tall according to the National Geodetic Survey (measured 2013–14) or 555 ft tall according to the National Park Service (measured 1884). In 1975, a ramp covered two steps at the entrance to the monument, so the ground next to the ramp was raised to match its height, reducing the remaining height to the monuments apex. It is both the worlds tallest stone structure and the worlds tallest obelisk. It is the tallest monumental column in the world if all are measured above their pedestrian entrances, but two are taller when measured above ground, though they are neither all stone nor true obelisks. The tallest masonry structure in the world is the brick Anaconda Smelter Stack in Montana at 585 ft tall. But this includes a 30 ft non-masonry concrete foundation, leaving the stacks brick chimney at 555 ft tall as the portion comparable to the monuments height, only about 6 in taller. If the monuments aluminum apex is also discounted, then the stacks masonry portion is 15 in taller than the monuments masonry portion.</p><br>
<h3>Flags</h3><br>
<p>Fifty American flags (not state flags), one for each state, are now flown 24 hours a day around a large circle centered on the monument. Forty eight American flags (one for each state then in existence) were flown on wooden flag poles on Washingtons birthday since 1920 and later on Independence Day, Memorial Day, and other special occasions until early 1958. Both the flags and flag poles were removed and stored between these days. In 1958 fifty 25 ft tall aluminum flag poles (anticipating Alaska and Hawaii) were installed, evenly spaced around a 260 ft diameter circle. During 2004–05, the diameter of the circle was reduced to 240 ft. Since Washingtons birthday 1958, 48 American flags were flown on a daily basis, increasing to 49 flags on July 4, 1959, and then to 50 flags since July 4, 1960. When 48 and 49 flags were flown, only 48 and 49 flag poles of the available 50 were placed into base receptacles. All flags were removed and stored overnight. Since July 4, 1971, 50 American flags have flown 24 hours a day.</p><br>
<h3>Security</h3><br>
<p>In 2001, a temporary visitor security screening center was added to the east entrance of the Washington Monument in the wake of the September 11 attacks. The one-story facility was designed to reduce the ability of a terrorist attack on the interior of the monument, or an attempt to seize and hold it. Visitors obtained their timed-entry tickets from the Monument Lodge east of the memorial, and passed through metal detectors and bomb-sniffing sensors prior to entering the monument. After exiting the monument, they passed through a turnstile to prevent them from re-entering. This facility, a one-story cube of wood around a metal frame, was intended to be temporary until a new screening facility could be designed.</p><br>
<p>On March 6, 2014, the National Capital Planning Commission approved a new visitor screening facility to replace the temporary one. The 785 ft&sup2; facility will be two stories high and contain space for screening 20 to 25 visitors at a time. The exterior walls (which will be slightly frosted to prevent viewing of the security screening process) will consist of an outer sheet of bulletproof glass or polycarbonate, a metal mesh insert, and another sheet of bulletproof glass. The inner sheet will consist of two sheets (slightly separated) of laminated glass. A 0.5 in airspace will exist between the inner and outer glass walls to help insulate the facility. Two (possibly three) geothermal heat pumps will be built on the north side of the monument to provide heating and cooling of the facility. The new facility will also provide an office for National Park Service and United States Park Police staff. The structure is designed so that it may be removed without damaging the monument. The United States Commission of Fine Arts approved the aesthetic design of the screening facility in June 2013.</p><br>
<p>A recessed trench wall known as a ha-ha has been built to minimize the visual impact of a security barrier surrounding the monument. After the September 11 attacks and another unrelated terror threat at the monument, authorities had put up a circle of temporary Jersey barriers to prevent large motor vehicles from approaching. The unsightly barrier was replaced by a less-obtrusive low 30 in granite stone wall that doubles as a seating bench and also incorporates lighting. The installation received the 2005 Park/Landscape Award of Merit from the American Society of Landscape Architects.</p><br>
<h2>Transit</h2><br>
<p>The Washington Monument is served by the Smithsonian metro station.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>As a landmark of the USA capital, the Washington Monument has been featured in film and television depictions. The symbolic meaning of the shape is referenced in the novel The Lost Symbol by Dan Brown. The monument is also the subject of Carl Sandburg&#39;s 1922 poem, "Washington by Night". In the musical Hamilton, the monument is referenced in a song, as Eliza Hamilton collected money for it to be constructed.</p><br>
<p>Saint Anthony Falls or the Falls of Saint Anthony, located northeast of downtown Minneapolis, Minnesota, was the only natural major waterfall on the Upper Mississippi River. The natural falls were replaced by a concrete overflow spillway  after it partially collapsed in 1869. Later, in the 1950s and 1960s, a series of locks and dams was constructed to extend navigation to points upstream.</p><br>
<p>Named after the Catholic saint Anthony of Padua, the falls is the birthplace of the former city of St. Anthony and to Minneapolis when the two cities joined in 1872 to fully use its economic power for milling operations. From 1880 to about 1930, Minneapolis was the "Flour Milling Capital of the World".</p><br>
<p>Today, the falls are defined by the locks and dams of the Upper Saint Anthony Falls, just downstream of the 3rd Avenue Bridge, and the Lower Saint Anthony Falls, just upstream of the I-35W Saint Anthony Falls Bridge. These locks were built as part of the Upper Mississippi River 9-Foot Navigation Project. The area around the falls is designated the St. Anthony Falls Historic District and features a 1.8-mile self-guided walking trail with signs explaining the area&#39;s past.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Before European exploration, the falls held cultural and spiritual significance for native tribes who frequented and lived in the area. The falls was an important and sacred site to the Mdewakanton Dakota and they called the Mississippi River, hahawakpa, "river of the falls." The falls (Haha) themselves were given specific names, mnirara "curling waters," owahmenah "falling waters," or owamni, "whirlpool" (mniyomni in the Eastern Dakota dialect and owamniyomni in the Teton Dakota (Lakota) dialect. Dakota associated the falls with legends and spirits, including Oanktehi, god of waters and evil, who lived beneath the falling water. The sacred falls also enters into their oral tradition by a story of a warrior&#39;s first wife who killed herself and their two children in anguish and forlorn love for the husband who had assumed a second wife. The rocky islet where the woman had pointed her canoe towards doom thus was named Spirit Island which was once a nesting ground for eagles that fed on fish below the falls. Dakota also camped on Nicollet Island upstream of the falls to fish and to tap the sugar maple trees.</p><br>
<p>Since the cataract had to be portaged, the area became one of the natural resting and trade points along the Mississippi between Dakota and Anishinaabe peoples. The Anishinaabe (Ojibwe) term was recorded as "kakabikah" (gakaabikaa, "split rock" or more descriptively, gichi-gakaabikaa, "the great severed rock" which referenced the jagged chunks of limestone constantly eroding by the falls).</p><br>
<p>In 1680, the falls became known to the Western world when they were observed and published in a journal by Father Louis Hennepin, a Catholic friar of Belgian birth, who also first published about Niagara Falls to the world&#39;s attention. Hennepin named them the Chutes de Saint-Antoine or the Falls of Saint Anthony after his patron saint, Anthony of Padua. Later explorers to document the falls include Jonathan Carver and Zebulon Montgomery Pike.</p><br>
<p>Following the establishment of Fort Snelling in 1820, the falls became an attraction for tourists, writers and artists who sought inspiration even if Hennepins descriptions were not as majestic as hoped for. By the 1860s, however, industrial waste had filled the area and marred the falls majesty. Further competition over the power of the falls on both banks of the river led to its eventual downfall when it partially collapsed in 1869 and was reinforced and subsequently sealed by a concrete overflow spillway (or "apron").</p><br>
<p>The area around the river was added to the National Register of Historic Places as the Saint Anthony Falls Historic District in 1971 which includes 8th Avenue Northeast extending downstream to 6th Avenue Southeast and approximately two city blocks on both shoreline.</p><br>
<p>The districts archaeological record is one of the most-endangered historic sites in Minnesota. The National Register of Historic Places is facilitated by the National Park Service. The national significance of the Saint Anthony Falls Historic District is a major reason why the National Park Service&#39;s Mississippi National River and Recreation Area was established along the Mississippi River in the Minneapolis – Saint Paul metropolitan area.</p><br>
<p>A Heritage Trail plaque nearby says,"For untold generations of Indian people the Mississippi River was an important canoe route. To pass around the falls, the Dakota (Sioux) and Ojibway (Chippewa) used a well-established portage trail. Starting at a landing below the site now occupied by the steam plant, the trail climbed the bluff to this spot. From here it followed the east bank along what is now Main Street to a point well above the falls."</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>Geologists say that the falls first appeared roughly 10,000 years ago several miles downstream at the confluence of the glacial River Warren (at present-day Ft. Snelling). Estimates are that the falls were about 180 ft high when the River Warren Falls receded past the confluence of the Mississippi River and the glacial River Warren. Over the succeeding 10,000 years, the falls moved upstream to its present location. The water churning at the bottom of the falls ate away at the soft sandstone, eventually breaking off the hard limestone cap in chunks as the falls receded. From its origins near Fort Snelling, St. Anthony Falls relocated upstream at a rate of about 4 ft per year until it reached its present location in the early 19th century. Tributaries such as Minnehaha Creek begot their own waterfalls as the Mississippi River valley was cut into the landscape.</p><br>
<p>When Father Louis Hennepin documented the falls he estimated the falls&#39; height to be 50 or 60 ft. Later explorers described it as being in the range of 16 to 20 ft high. The discrepancy may have been due to scope, as the current total drop in river level over the series of dams is 76 ft (23 m).</p><br>
<p>The geological formation of the area consisted of a hard, thin layer of Platteville Formation, a limestone, overlaying the soft St. Peter Sandstone sub-surface. These layers were the result of an Ordovician Period sea which covered east-central Minnesota 500 million years ago.</p><br>
<h2>Industry</h2><br>
<p>The first private land claim at the falls was made by Franklin Steele in 1838 &mdash; though he didn&#39;t obtain financing for development until 1847, in the form of $12,000 for a 9/10 stake in the property. On May 18, 1848 president Polk approved the claims made in St. Anthony, and Steele was able to build his dam on the east side of the river above the Falls, blocking the east channel.</p><br>
<p>The dam extended diagonally into the river 700 ft, was 16 ft high, and was secured to the limestone riverbed. Its thickness tapered from 40 wide at its base to 12 ft wide at the top. Steele dispatched logging crews to the Crow Wing River in December 1847 to supply pine for the sawmill, and by September 1, 1848 sawing commenced using two up-down saws. He was able to sell the lumber readily, supplying construction projects in the booming town. The new community at the Falls attracted entrepreneurs from New England, many of whom had experience in lumber and milling. He had hired Ard Godfrey to help build and run the first commercial sawmill at the Falls. Godfrey knew the most efficient ways to use natural resources, like the falls, and the great pine forests, to make lumber products. Godfrey built the first home in St. Anthony, Steele had the town platted in 1849, and it incorporated in 1855.</p><br>
<p>By 1854, 300 squatters occupied the west bank of the river, and in 1855 Congress recognized the squatters right to purchase the land they had claimed. The west side quickly developed scores of new mills and consortia. They built a dam diagonally into the river to the north, which, along with Steeles dam created the inverted V-shape, still apparent today. Steele created the St. Anthony Falls Water Power Company in 1856 with three New York financiers, Davis, Gebhard and Sanford. The company struggled for several years, due to poor relations with the financiers, a depression, and the Civil War. In 1868 the firm reorganized with new officers including John Pillsbury, Richard and Samuel Chute, Sumner Farnham, and Frederick Butterfield.</p><br>
<p>As Minneapolis (and its former neighbor across the river, St. Anthony) developed, the water power at the falls became a source of power for several industries. Water power was used by sawmills, textile mills, and flour mills. Millers on the Minneapolis side formed a consortium to extract power by diverting upper-level water into waterwheel-equipped vertical shafts (driven through the limestone bedrock into the soft, underlying sandstone) and then through horizontal tunnels to the falls lower level. These shafts and tunnels weakened the limestone and its sandstone foundation, accelerating the falls upriver erosion to 26 ft per year between 1857 and 1868. The falls quickly approached the edge of their limestone cap; once the limestone had completely eroded away, the falls would degenerate into sandstone rapids unsuitable for waterpower. The mills on the St. Anthony (east) side of the river were less-well organized harnessing the power, and therefore industry developed at a slower pace on that side.</p><br>
<h3>1869 collapse of the Hennepin Island tunnel</h3><br>
<p>The early dams built to harness the waterpower exposed the limestone to freezing and thawing forces, narrowed the channel, and increased the damage from floods. A report in 1868 found that only eleven hundred feet of the limestone remained upstream, and if it were eroded away, the falls would turn into a rapids that would no longer be useful for waterpower. Meanwhile, the St. Anthony Falls Water Power Company approved a plan for the firm of William W. Eastman and John L. Merriam to build a tunnel under Hennepin and Nicollet Islands that would share the waterpower. This plan was met with disaster on October 5, 1869, when the limestone cap was breached.</p><br>
<p>The leak turned into a torrent of water coming out the tunnel. The water blasted Hennepin Island, causing a 150 ft chunk to fall off into the river. Believing that the mills and all the other industries around the falls would be ruined, hundreds of people rushed to view the impending disaster. Groups of volunteers started shoring up the gap by throwing trees and timber into the river, but that was ineffective. They then built a huge raft of timbers from the milling operations on Nicollet Island. This worked briefly, but also proved ineffective. A number of workers worked for months to build a dam that would funnel water away from the tunnel. The next year, an engineer from Lowell, Massachusetts recommended completing a wooden apron, sealing the tunnel, and building low dams above the falls to avoid exposing the limestone to the weather. This work was assisted by the federal government, and was eventually completed in 1884. The federal government spent $615,000 on this effort, while the two cities spent $334,500.</p><br>
<h2>Locks and dams</h2><br>
<p>St. Anthony Falls was the upper limit of commercial navigation on the Mississippi until two dams and a series of locks were built between 1948 and 1963 by the United States Army Corps of Engineers. The locks made commercial navigation possible above Minneapolis but, since the locks in Minneapolis are smaller than most of the locks on the rest of the river, the practical limit for many commercial tows is further downriver. A smaller number of barges go to Minneapolis. At midnight on June 9, 2015, the Upper St. Anthony Falls lock was permanently closed by Section 2010 of “H.R.3080 - Water Resources Reform and Development Act of 2014” which was signed into law by President Barack Obama on June 10, 2014, and was required to be implemented "Not later than 1 year after the date of enactment" The closure is intended to stop the spread of invasive species namely two types of Asian carp: bighead carp and silver carp. Minneapolis is once again the site of the head of navigation of the river.</p><br>
<p>Completed in 1963, the upper St. Anthony Falls dam is a horseshoe-shaped hydro-electric dam 49 feet (15 m) in height. The upper pool has a normal capacity of 3,150 acre.ft and a normal level of 799 feet (244 m) above sea level. The navigation channel required alteration of the historic Stone Arch Bridge, which now has a metal truss section to allow ships to pass below.</p><br>
<p>Completed in 1956, the Lower St. Anthony Falls dam is a gravity-type hydro-electric dam 26 feet (8 m) in height, consisting of a 275 foot (84 m) long concrete spillway with four tainter gates. The lower pool (sometimes called the intermediate pool) has a normal capacity of 375 acre.ft and a normal level of 750 feet (229 m) above sea level.</p><br>
<p>The pool below the lower dam has a normal level of 725 feet (221 m) above sea level.</p><br>
<p>The upper and lower locks are each 56 feet (17 m) wide by 400 feet (122 m) long.</p><br>
<p>The current around the spillway/falls is often swift and dangerous. In 1991, a small boat drifted too close and fell over one part of the dam. One person on board was killed, and one had to be rescued by helicopter. Rescues at the site are usually much less dramatic, but continue to happen occasionally.</p><br>
<h2>Paintings</h2><br>
<p>The National Mall is an area of National Mall and Memorial Parks, an official unit of the national park system in downtown Washington, D.C., the capital of the United States. The National Park Service  of the USA Department of the Interior administers the National Mall.</p><br>
<p>The term National Mall commonly includes areas that are also officially part of neighboring West Potomac Park and Constitution Gardens to the southwest, and often is taken to refer to the entire area between the Lincoln Memorial on the west and east to the United States Capitol grounds, with the Washington Monument dividing the area slightly west of its midpoint. A smaller designation, sometimes referred to as the Mall proper, excludes both the Capitol grounds and the Washington Monument grounds, applying only to an area between them. The National Mall contains and borders a number of museums of the Smithsonian Institution, art galleries, cultural institutions and various memorials, sculptures and statues and receives approximately 24 million visitors each year.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In his 1791 plan for the future city of Washington, D.C., Pierre (Peter) Charles L&#39;Enfant envisioned a garden-lined "grand avenue" approximately 1 mile (1.6 km) in length</p><br>
<p>and 400 ft wide, in an area that would lie between the Capitol building and an equestrian statue of George Washington to be placed directly south of the White House (see LEnfant Plan). The National Mall occupies the site of this planned "grand avenue", which was never constructed. The Washington Monument stands near the planned site of its namesakes equestrian statue. Mathew Carey&#39;s 1802 map is reported to be the first to name the area west of the United States Capitol as the "Mall".</p><br>
<p>During the early 1850s, architect and horticulturist Andrew Jackson Downing designed a landscape plan for the Mall. Over the next half century, federal agencies developed several naturalistic parks within the Mall in accordance with Downing&#39;s plan. Two such areas were Henry Park and Seaton Park. In addition, railroad tracks crossed the Mall on 6th Street, west of the Capitol. Near the tracks, a large market (Central Market) and a railroad station rose on the north side of the Mall. Greenhouses belonging to the USA Botanic Garden appeared near the east end of the Mall.</p><br>
<p>In 1902, the McMillan Commissions plan, which was partially inspired by the City Beautiful Movement and which purportedly extended LEnfants plan, called for a radical redesign of the Mall that would replace its greenhouses, gardens, trees, and commercial/industrial facilities with an open space. The plan differed from LEnfant&#39;s by replacing the 400 ft wide "grand avenue" with a 300 ft wide vista containing a long and broad expanse of grass. Four rows of American elm (Ulmus americana) trees planted fifty feet apart between two paths or streets would line each side of the vista. Buildings housing cultural and educational institutions constructed in the Beaux-Arts style would line each outer path or street, on the opposite side of the path or street from the elms.</p><br>
<p>In subsequent years, the vision of the McMillan plan was generally followed with the planting of American elms and the layout of four boulevards down the Mall, two on either side of a wide lawn. In accordance with a plan that it completed in 1976, the NPS converted the two innermost boulevards (Washington and Adams Drives) into gravel walking paths. The two outermost boulevards (Jefferson Drive Southwest (SW) and Madison Drive Northwest (NW)) remain paved and open to vehicular traffic.</p><br>
<p>In 1918 contractors for the United States Navys Bureau of Yards and Docks constructed the "Main Navy" and "Munitions" Buildings along nearly a third of a mile of the south side of Constitution Avenue (then known as B Street), from 17th Street NW to 21st Street NW. Although the Navy intended the buildings to provide temporary quarters for the United States military during World War I, the reinforced concrete structures remained in place until 1970. Much of the buildings area then became Constitution Gardens, which was dedicated in 1976.</p><br>
<p>From the 1970s to 1994, a fiberglass model of a triceratops named "Uncle Beazley" stood on the Mall in front of the National Museum of Natural History. The life-size statue, which is now located at the National Zoological Park (the National Zoo) in Northwest Washington, D.C., was donated to the Smithsonian Institution by the Sinclair Oil Corporation. The statue, which Louis Paul Jonas created for Sinclairs DinoLand pavilion at the 1964 New York Worlds Fair, was named after a dinosaur in Oliver Butterworths 1956 childrens book, The Enormous Egg, and the 1968 televised movie adaptation in which the statue appeared.</p><br>
<p>In 2003, the 108th United States Congress enacted the Commemorative Works Clarification and Revision Act. This Act prohibits the siting of new commemorative works and visitor centers in a designated reserve area within the cross-axis of the Mall.</p><br>
<p>In October 2013, a two-week federal government shutdown closed the National Mall and its museums and monuments. However, when a group of elderly veterans tried to enter the National World War II Memorial during the shutdowns first day, the memorials barricades were removed. The NPS subsequently announced that the veterans had a legal right to be in the memorial and would not be barred in the future. During the shutdown&#39;s second week, the NPS permitted a controversial immigration rally and concert to take place on the Mall.</p><br>
<p>On October 15, 1966, the NPS listed the National Mall on the National Register of Historic Places. In 1981, the NPS prepared a National Register nomination form that documented the Mall&#39;s boundaries, features and historical significance.</p><br>
<p>On December 8, 2016, the NPS listed on the National Register of Historic Places an increase in the National Mall Historic Districts boundary to encompass an area bounded by 3rd Street, NW/SW, Independence Avenue, SW, Raoul Wallenberg Place, SW, the CSX Railroad, the Potomac River, Constitution Ave., NW, 17th Street, NW, the White House Grounds and 15th Street, NW. The listings registration form, which contained 232 pages, described and illustrated the history and features of the historic district&#39;s proposed expanded area.</p><br>
<h2>Measurements</h2><br>
<h3>Dimensions</h3><br>
<p>Between the Capitol steps and the Lincoln Memorial, the Mall spans 1.9 miles (3.0 km).</p><br>
<p>Between the Capitol steps and the Washington Monument, the Mall spans 1.2 miles (1.8 km).</p><br>
<p>Between the Ulysses S. Grant Memorial and the Lincoln Memorial, the Mall covers 309.2 acres (125.13 ha).</p><br>
<p>Between Constitution Avenue NW and Independence Avenue SW at 7th Street, the width of the Mall is 1,586 ft.</p><br>
<p>Between Madison Drive NW and Jefferson Drive SW at 7th Street, the width of the Mall&#39;s open space is 656 ft.</p><br>
<p>Between the innermost rows of trees near 7th Street, the width of the Mall&#39;s vista is 300 ft.</p><br>
<h3>Boundaries</h3><br>
<p>In its 1981 National Register of Historic Places nomination form, the NPS defined the boundaries of the National Mall (proper) as Constitution and Pennsylvania Avenues on the north, 1st Street NW on the east, Independence and Maryland Avenues on the south, and 14th Street NW on the west, with the exception of the section of land bordered by Jefferson Drive on the north, Independence Avenue on the south, and by 12th and 14th Streets respectively on the east and west, which the USA Department of Agriculture administers and which contains the Jamie L. Whitten Building (USA Department of Agriculture Administration Building).</p><br>
<p>However, a 2010 NPS plan for the Mall contains maps that show the Mall&#39;s general area to be larger. A document within the plan describes this area as "the grounds of the USA Capitol west to the Potomac River, and from the Thomas Jefferson Memorial north to Constitution Avenue". A map within the plan entitled "National Mall Areas" illustrates "The Mall" as being the green space bounded on the east by 3rd Street, on the west by 14th Street, on the north by Jefferson Drive, NW, and on the south by Madison Drive, SW. A Central Intelligence Agency map shows the Mall as occupying the space between the Lincoln Memorial and the United States Capitol.</p><br>
<p>In 2011, the 112th United States Congress enacted the Legislative Branch Appropriations Act, 2012, which transferred to the Architect of the Capitol the NPS "property which is bounded on the north by Pennsylvania Avenue Northwest, on the east by First Street Northwest and First Street Southwest, on the south by Maryland Avenue Southwest, and on the west by Third Street Southwest and Third Street Northwest". This act removed Union Square (the area containing the Ulysses S. Grant Memorial and the Capitol Reflecting Pool) from NPS jurisdiction.</p><br>
<h2>Purposes</h2><br>
<p>The National Park Service states that the purposes of the National Mall are to:</p><br>
<p>Provide a monumental, dignified, and symbolic setting for the governmental structures, museums and national memorials as first delineated by the L&#39;Enfant plan and further outlined in the McMillan plan.</p><br>
<p>Maintain and provide for the use of the National Mall with its public promenades as a completed work of civic art, a designed historic landscape providing extraordinary vistas to symbols of the nation.</p><br>
<p>Maintain National Mall commemorative works (memorials, monuments, statues, sites, gardens) that honor presidential legacies, distinguished public figures, ideas, events, and military and civilian sacrifices and contributions.</p><br>
<p>Forever retain the West Potomac Park section of the National Mall as a public park for recreation and enjoyment of the people.</p><br>
<p>Maintain the National Mall in the heart of the nation&#39;s capital as a stage for national events and a preeminent national civic space for public gatherings because it is here that the constitutional rights of speech and peaceful assembly find their fullest expression.</p><br>
<p>Maintain the National Mall as an area free of commercial advertising while retaining the ability to recognize sponsors.</p><br>
<h2>Landmarks, museums, and other features</h2><br>
<p>The National Mall (proper) contains the following landmarks, museums and other features:</p><br>
<p>With the exception of the National Gallery of Art, all of the museums on the National Mall (proper) are part of the Smithsonian Institution. The Smithsonian Gardens maintains a number of gardens near its museums. These gardens include:</p><br>
<p>The broader area of the National Mall includes numerous other landmarks and features.</p><br>
<p>Features east of the National Mall (proper) include:</p><br>
<p>Features west of the National Mall (proper) include:</p><br>
<p>The population of American elm trees planted on the Mall and its surrounding areas in accordance with the McMillan Plan has remained intact for the past 70 years because of disease management and immediate tree replacement. Dutch elm disease (DED) first appeared on the Mall during the 1950s and reached a peak in the 1970s. The NPS has used a number of methods to control this fungal epidemic, including sanitation, pruning, injecting trees with fungicide, replanting with DED-resistant American elm cultivars and combatting the disease&#39;s local insect vector, the smaller European elm bark beetle (Scolytus multistriatus), by trapping and by spraying with insecticides. Soil compaction and root damage by crowds and construction projects also adversely affect the elms.</p><br>
<h2>Other attractions nearby</h2><br>
<p>Other attractions within walking distance of the National Mall proper include the Library of Congress and the United States Supreme Court Building east of the Capitol; the White House (on a line directly north of the Washington Monument), the National Archives, the Freedom Forums Newseum, the Old Post Office Pavilion, the National Theatre, Fords Theatre, and the Albert Einstein Memorial to the north. Other nearby attractions include the National Postal Museum and Union Station to the northeast; and the Tidal Basin, the Jefferson Memorial, the Franklin Delano Roosevelt Memorial, the Martin Luther King, Jr. Memorial, the George Mason Memorial, the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, and the Bureau of Engraving and Printing to the south.</p><br>
<h2>Usage</h2><br>
<p>The National Mall, in combination with the other attractions in the Washington Metropolitan Area, makes the nation&#39;s capital city one of the most popular tourist destinations in the country. It has several other uses in addition to serving as a tourist focal point.</p><br>
<h3>Protests and rallies</h3><br>
<p>The National Mall&#39;s status as a wide, open expanse at the heart of the capital makes it an attractive site for protests and rallies of all types. One notable example is the 1963 March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom, a political rally during the Civil Rights Movement, at which Martin Luther King Jr. delivered his speech "I Have a Dream".</p><br>
<p>The largest officially recorded rally was the Vietnam War Moratorium Rally on October 15, 1969. However, in 1995, the NPS issued a crowd estimate for the Million Man March with which an organizer of the event, Nation of Islam leader Louis Farrakhan, disagreed. The next year, a committee of the 104th United States Congress provided no funds for NPS crowd-counting activities in Washington, D.C. when it prepared legislation making 1997 appropriations for the USA Department of the Interior.</p><br>
<p>As a result, the NPS has not provided any official crowd size estimates for Mall events since 1995. The absence of such an official estimate fueled a political controversy following the presidential inauguration of Donald Trump in 2017 (see: Inauguration of Donald Trump crowd size).</p><br>
<p>On April 25, 2004, the March for Women&#39;s Lives filled the Mall. On January 27, 2007, tens of thousands of protesters opposed to the Iraq War converged on the Mall (see: January 27, 2007 anti-war protest), drawing comparisons by participants to the Vietnam War protest.</p><br>
<h3>Presidential inaugurations</h3><br>
<p>During presidential inaugurations, people without official tickets gather at the National Mall. Normally, the Mall between 7th and 14th Streets NW is used as a staging ground for the parade. On December 4, 2008, the Presidential Inaugural Committee (see: United States presidential inauguration organizers) announced that "for the first time, the entire length of the National Mall will be opened to the public so that more people than ever before will be able to witness the swearing-in of the President from a vantage point in sight of the Capitol." The Committee made this arrangement because of the massive attendance – projected to be as many as 2 million people – that it expected for the first inauguration of Barack Obama on January 20, 2009.</p><br>
<p>Despite the arrangement, a throng of people seeking access to the event climbed and then removed temporary protective fences around the Smithsonians Mary Livingston Ripley Garden, six blocks from the site at which Obama took his inaugural oath. Hordes then trampled the gardens vegetation and elevated plant beds when entering and leaving the event. Others could not find a way to enter the Mall in time to view the ceremony.</p><br>
<p>More than a thousand people with tickets missed the event while being stranded in the I-395 Third Street Tunnel beneath the Mall after police directed them there (see Purple Tunnel of Doom). The Joint Congressional Committee on Inaugural Ceremonies subsequently announced that ticket holders that were not admitted would receive copies of the swearing-in invitation and program, photos of Obama and Vice President Joe Biden, and a color print of the ceremony.</p><br>
<h3>Other events and recreational activities</h3><br>
<p>The National Mall has long served as a spot for jogging, picnics, and light recreation for the Washington population. The Smithsonian Carousel, located on the Mall in front of the Arts and Industry Building, is a popular attraction that operates seasonally. The carousel was built by the Allan Herschell Company and arrived at Gwynn Oak Park near Baltimore, Maryland, in 1947. It was moved to the Mall in 1981.</p><br>
<h4>Annual events</h4><br>
<p>A number of large free events recur annually on the Mall. A kite festival, formerly named the "Smithsonian Kite Festival" and now named the "Blossom Kite Festival", usually takes place each year on the Washington Monument grounds during the last weekend of March as part of the National Cherry Blossom Festival. The 2017 kite festival took place on the Washington Monument grounds on Saturday, April 1.</p><br>
<p>An Earth Day celebration often takes place on the Mall around April 22. A week-long series of rallies, exhibits, observances and performances occurred on the Mall from April 17 to April 25, 2010 to commemorate Earth Days 40th anniversary. The final days events featured performances by Sting, Mavis Staples, The Roots, John Legend, Jimmy Cliff and others. The 2012 Earth Day rally, which featured music, entertainment, celebrity speakers and environmental activities, took place on the Mall during a rainy day on Sunday, April 22. Cheap Trick, Dave Mason, Nigel Pilkington, Dan Russell and Emma Tate and The Explorers Club performed and Congressmen John Dingell and Edward Markey spoke. In 2013, an "Earth Month" at Washingtons Union Station replaced the Malls Earth Day event. On April 19, 2015, a "Global Citizen" Earth Day concert featured performances on the Washington Monument grounds by Usher, My Morning Jacket, Mary J. Blige, Train (band)</p><br>
<p>Train and No Doubt.</p><br>
<p>The National Symphony Orchestra presents each year its National Memorial Day Concert on the west lawn of the United States Capitol during the evening of the Sunday before Memorial Day (the last Monday of May). The National Gallery of Art hosts a Jazz in the Garden series each year in the museum&#39;s Sculpture Garden on Friday evenings from late May through August.</p><br>
<p>Components of the United States Navy Band, the United States Air Force Band, the United States Marine Band and the United States Army Band perform on the west steps of the United States Capitol on Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday and Friday evenings, respectively, during June, July and August. The Marine Band repeats each Wednesday Capitol performance on the following evening (Thursday) at the Sylvan Theater on the grounds of the Washington Monument. Components of USA military bands also provide evening concerts at the World War II Memorial from May through August.</p><br>
<p>The Smithsonian Folklife Festival takes place on the Mall each year for two weeks around Independence Day (July 4). On that holiday, the A Capitol Fourth concert takes place in the late afternoon and early evening on the west lawn of the Capitol. This and other Independence Day celebrations on and near the Mall end after sunset with a fireworks display between the Washington Monument and the Lincoln Memorial.</p><br>
<p>The National Symphony Orchestra presents each year its Labor Day Capitol Concert on the west lawn of the United States Capitol during the evening of the Sunday before Labor Day (the first Monday of September).</p><br>
<h4>Other events</h4><br>
<p>On April 9, 1939, singer Marian Anderson gave an Easter Sunday concert at the Lincoln Memorial after the Daughters of the American Revolution (DAR) denied a request by Howard University for her to give an Easter performance at the DARs nearby racially segregated Constitution Hall (see: Marian Andersons 1939 Lincoln Memorial concert). The event, which 75,000 people attended, occurred after President Franklin D. Roosevelt gave his assent for the performance.</p><br>
<p>The 1976 United States Bicentennial celebration provided the motivation for planning to accommodate large numbers of expected visitors to the National Mall. A number of major memorials were added to the Mall throughout that period. On May 21, 1976, Constitution Gardens was dedicated. On July 1, the Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum opened. On July 4, the Bicentennial fireworks display on the Mall attracted one million viewers, making it second only to the 1965 presidential inauguration of Lyndon B. Johnson as the largest event in the Mall&#39;s history up to that time.</p><br>
<p>On Sunday, October 9, 1979, Pope John Paul II celebrated Mass on the National Mall during a visit to Washington. The celebration took place after an appellate court denied a motion for an injunction that atheists Madalyn Murray O&#39;Hair and Jon Garth Murray had filed to prevent the event from occurring.</p><br>
<p>From 1980 through 1982, The Beach Boys and The Grass Roots performed Independence Day concerts on the Mall, attracting large crowds. However, in April 1983, James G. Watt, President Ronald Reagans Secretary of the Interior, banned Independence Day concerts on the Mall by such groups. Watt said that "rock bands" that had performed on the Mall on Independence Day in 1981 and 1982 had encouraged drug use and alcoholism and had attracted "the wrong element", who would mug individuals and families attending any similar events in the future. Watt then announced that Las Vegas crooner Wayne Newton, a friend and supporter of President Reagan and a contributor to Republican Party political campaigns, would perform at the Malls 1983 Independence Day celebration.</p><br>
<p>During the ensuing uproar, Rob Grill, lead singer of The Grass Roots, stated that he felt "highly insulted" by Watt&#39;s remarks, which he called "nothing but un-American". Watt apologized to The Beach Boys, First Lady Nancy Reagan apologized for Watt, and in 1984 The Beach Boys gave an Independence Day concert on the Mall to an audience of 750,000 people.</p><br>
<p>On September 4, 2003, Britney Spears, Mary J. Blige, Aretha Franklin, Aerosmith and others performed in a nationally televised "NFL Kickoff Live from the National Mall Presented by Pepsi Vanilla" (see: Pre-game concerts for National Football League kickoff game). Preceded by a three-day National Football League "interactive Super Bowl theme park", the event had primarily commercial purposes, unlike earlier major activities on the Mall. Three weeks later, the United States Senate overwhelmingly passed legislation that, when enacted into law, limited displays of commercial sponsorship on the Mall.</p><br>
<p>On July 7, 2007, one leg of Live Earth was held outdoors at the National Museum of the American Indian on the Mall. Former Vice President Al Gore presented, and artists such as Garth Brooks and Trisha Yearwood performed.</p><br>
<p>Occurring once every two to three years on the Mall in the early fall from 2002 to 2009, the USA Department of Energy Solar Decathlon displayed solar-powered houses that competitive collegiate teams designed, constructed and operated. Igniting a controversy, the Department of Energy (DOE) decided to move the 2011 Decathlon off the Mall, claiming that this would support an effort to protect, improve and restore the park. Federal officials stated that heavy equipment that had placed two-story houses on the Mall during earlier Decathlons had cracked walkways and killed grass to a greater extent than had most other Mall events. On February 4, 2011, a Washington Post editorial criticized attempts to have President Obama restore the event to the Mall. Nevertheless, by February 12, 2011, at least thirteen USA Senators had signed a letter asking the DOE to reconsider its decision. On February 23, 2011, the DOE and the Department of the Interior announced that the 2011 Solar Decathlon would take place along Ohio Drive southeast of the Franklin Delano Roosevelt Memorial in West Potomac Park. The event took place in the Park from September 23 through October 2, 2011. The 2013 Solar Decathlon took place in California instead of Washington.</p><br>
<p>From 2003 to 2013, the National Book Festival took place on the Mall each year in late September or early October. However, the event moved to the Walter E. Washington Convention Center in 2014 because the NPS became concerned about the damage that pedestrians had inflicted on the Mall&#39;s lawn during previous Festivals.</p><br>
<p>A four-day exhibition took place each year on the Mall during Public Service Recognition Week (the first full week of May) until 2010. Government agencies participating in the event sponsored exhibits that displayed the works of public employees and that enabled visitors to learn about government programs and initiatives, discuss employee benefits, and interact with agency representatives. However, the 2011 United States federal budget (Public Law 112-10), which was belatedly enacted on April 15, 2011, contained no funding for that years event, forcing the events cancellation. The event did not take place in 2012.</p><br>
<p>On June 12, 2010, Tareq and Michaele Salahi, a couple under investigation for allegedly crashing a White House state dinner for the Prime Minister of India in November 2009 (see: 2009 USA state dinner security breaches), hosted an Americas Polo Cup match between the United States and India on the Mall. The advertised ticket price for this event was $95 per person. Reports of the event stated that the players who represented India were actually of Pakistani origin and were from Florida. A spokesman for the Embassy of India stated that neither the Embassy nor the government of India had any association with the event. The events website reportedly identified an Indian company, Kingfisher Beer, as a sponsor. However, Kingfishers chief executive denied that the company had sponsored the event. Yashpal Singh, the president and chief executive of Mendocino Brewing Company, Kingfishers parent company, stated, "We are not sponsoring this event and have informed the people managing this event of that.... We have sent legal notices to this effect, and he keeps on advertising us as a sponsor. I dont know what world hes living in."</p><br>
<p>The inaugural USA Science and Engineering Festival Expo took place on the National Mall and surrounding areas on October 23 and 24, 2010. More than 1,500 free interactive exhibits reportedly drew about 500,000 people to the event, which had over 75 performances. The second Expo took place on April 28–29, 2012, in the Walter E. Washington Convention Center.</p><br>
<p>On Veterans Day, November 11, 2014, Bruce Springsteen, Eminem, Rihanna, Metallica, Carrie Underwood, Dave Grohl, the Zac Brown Band and other pop entertainers performed on the Mall during a free evening Concert for Valor honoring veterans and their families. Attendance was in the hundreds of thousands, making it one of the biggest events on the Mall for the year.</p><br>
<p>The annual Screen on the Green movie festival took place on the Mall on Monday nights during July and August for 17 years until 2015. Free classic movies were projected on large portable screens and typically drew crowds of thousands of people. Organizers cancelled the event in 2016 when the event&#39;s sponsors (HBO and Comcast) terminated their support, stating that they needed their resources for other projects.</p><br>
<h2>National Mall Plan</h2><br>
<p>From 2006 through 2010, the NPS conducted a public process that created a plan for the future of the National Mall. The ROD contains a summary of the selected alternative, which is the basis for the Plan, together with mitigation measures developed to minimize environmental harm; other alternatives considered; the basis for the decision in terms of planning objectives and the criteria used to develop the preferred alternative; a finding of no impairment of park resources and values; the environmentally preferable alternative; and the public and agency involvement.</p><br>
<p>The Plan proposed a number of changes to the Mall. The NPS would construct at the east end of the Mall a wide expanse of paved surface in Union Square to accommodate demonstrations and other events by reducing the size of the Capitol Reflecting Pool or by replacing the pool with a fountain or other small water feature. Additional proposed changes included the replacement of the Sylvan Theater on the Washington Monument grounds with a facility containing offices, restaurants and restrooms.</p><br>
<p>On December 2, 2010, the National Capital Planning Commission (NCPC) unanimously approved the final National Mall Plan at a public hearing. The NCPCs approval allowed the NPS to move forward with implementation of the Plans recommendations. On March 1, 2012, the NCPC discussed a proposal that would decrease the Malls existing green space by widening and paving most of the north-south walkways that cross the Mall between Seventh and Fourteenth Streets and by replacing with gravel large areas of grass that are located near the Smithsonian Metro Station and the National Gallery of Arts Sculpture Garden.</p><br>
<p>On September 8, 2011, the Trust for the National Mall and the NPS announced an open competition for a redesign of the spaces on the National Mall that Union Square, the Sylvan Theater grounds and the Constitution Gardens lake now occupy. Former First Lady of the United States Laura Bush agreed to be the honorary co-chair of a drive to raise funds for the three projects.</p><br>
<p>On April 9, 2012, the Trust for the National Mall announced the ideas for the redesign of Union Square, the Sylvan Theater grounds and Constitution Gardens lake area that finalists in the competition had submitted. The Trust asked the public to submit online comments that the competition jury would consider when evaluating each design. The Trust announced the winners of the competition on May 2, 2012. Groundbreaking for the first project was expected to take place by 2014, with the first ribbon-cutting ceremony by 2016.</p><br>
<p>On October 1, 2015, the NCPC approved preliminary and final site and building plans that the NPS had submitted for the first phase rehabilitation of Constitution Gardens. Plans include the relocation and rehabilitation of the Lockkeeper&#39;s House, C & O Canal Extension, a new entry plaza at the corner of Constitution Avenue and 17th Street, NW, landscaping, a meadow and pollinator habitat and a new perimeter garden wall. A temporary path will connect to an existing plaza located at the eastern end of Constitution Garden’s lake.</p><br>
<h2>Reconstruction and restoration</h2><br>
<p>From 2010 to 2012, NPS contractors rebuilt the aging Lincoln Memorial Reflecting Pool, which had first been constructed in the early 1920s and whose water had come from the pipes that supply Washington, D.C., with its drinking water. As a result of the project, the pool now receives filtered water from the Tidal Basin through a high-density polyethylene (HDPE) pipeline.</p><br>
<p>The NPS then began a four-year restoration of the portion of the central axis of the Mall that lies between 3rd Street and 14th Street. By 2016, the restoration project had completely replaced the deteriorated and weedy turf that had previously covered much of that part of the Mall with a new cover containing soil, fescue (Festuca) and Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis).</p><br>
<h2>Transportation</h2><br>
<h3>Public transportation</h3><br>
<p>The National Mall is accessible via the Washington Metro, with the Smithsonian station located on the south side of the Mall, near the Smithsonian Institution Building between the Washington Monument and the United States Capitol. The Federal Triangle, Archives, and Union Station Metro stations are also located near the Mall, to the north. The L&#39;Enfant Plaza, Federal Center Southwest and Capitol South Metro stations are located several blocks south of the Mall. Metrobus and the DC Circulator make scheduled stops near the Mall.</p><br>
<h3>Bicycles</h3><br>
<p>The NPS provides parking facilities for bicycles near each of the major memorials as well as along the National Mall. From March to October, an NPS concessionaire rents out bicycles at the Thompson Boat Center, located near the intersection of Virginia Avenue NW and Rock Creek and Potomac Parkway, 1 mi north of the Lincoln Memorial along the Potomac River-Rock Creek Trail. The first two of five approved Capital Bikeshare stations opened on the National Mall on March 16, 2012, shortly before the start of the 2012 National Cherry Blossom Festival.</p><br>
<p>The National Mall is the official midpoint of the East Coast Greenway, a 2,900 mile–long system of shared-use bicycle trails linking Calais, Maine, with Key West, Florida.</p><br>
<h3>Pedicabs</h3><br>
<p>The NPS licenses pedicab drivers to provide transportation and tours of the National Mall through its Commercial Use Authorization program.</p><br>
<h3>Motor vehicle parking</h3><br>
<p>General visitor parking is available along Ohio Drive SW, between the Lincoln and Thomas Jefferson Memorials. Bus parking is available primarily along Ohio Drive, SW, near the Lincoln and Thomas Jefferson Memorials and along Ohio Drive SW, in East Potomac Park. There is limited handicapped parking at the Franklin Delano Roosevelt and World War II Memorials and near the Washington Monument and the Thomas Jefferson, Lincoln, Korean War Veterans, and Vietnam Veterans Memorials; otherwise, parking is extremely scarce in and near the Mall.</p><br>
<p>In April 2017, the NPS awarded a contract for the installation of parking meters on streets and in parking areas on the Mall. On June 12, 2017, the NPS and the District of Columbia Department of Public Works began to enforce metered parking on approximately 1,100 parking spaces in which motorists could previously park without charge.</p><br>
<p>The Corinth Canal  is a canal that connects the Gulf of Corinth with the Saronic Gulf in the Aegean Sea. It cuts through the narrow Isthmus of Corinth and separates the Peloponnese from the Greek mainland, arguably making the peninsula an island. The builders dug the canal through the Isthmus at sea level; no locks are employed. It is 6.4 km in length and only 21.4 m wide at its base, making it impassable for most modern ships. It now has little economic importance.</p><br>
<p>The canal was initially proposed in classical times and a failed effort was made to build it in the 1st century CE. Construction started in 1881 but was hampered by geological and financial problems that bankrupted the original builders. It was completed in 1893 but, due to the canal&#39;s narrowness, navigational problems and periodic closures to repair landslides from its steep walls, it failed to attract the level of traffic expected by its operators. It is now used mainly for tourist traffic.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Ancient attempts</h3><br>
<p>Several rulers of antiquity dreamed of digging a cutting through the isthmus. The first to propose such an undertaking was the tyrant Periander in the 7th century BC. The project was abandoned and Periander instead constructed a simpler and less costly overland portage road, named the Diolkos or stone carriageway, along which ships could be towed from one side of the isthmus to the other. Periander&#39;s change of heart is attributed variously to the great expense of the project, a lack of labour or a fear that a canal would have robbed Corinth of its dominant role as an entrepôt for goods. Remnants of the Diolkos still exist next to the modern canal.</p><br>
<p>The Diadoch Demetrius Poliorcetes (336–283 BC) planned to construct a canal as a means to improve his communication lines, but dropped the plan after his surveyors, miscalculating the levels of the adjacent seas, feared heavy floods.</p><br>
<p>The philosopher Apollonius of Tyana prophesied that anyone who proposed to dig a Corinthian canal would be met with illness. Three Roman rulers considered the idea but all suffered violent deaths; the historian Suetonius writes that the Roman dictator Julius Caesar considered digging a canal through the isthmus but was assassinated before he could begin the project. Caligula, the third Roman Emperor, commissioned a study in 40 CE from Egyptian experts who claimed incorrectly that the Corinthian Gulf was higher than the Saronic Gulf. As a result, they concluded, if a canal were dug the island of Aegina would be inundated. Caligula&#39;s interest in the idea got no further as he too was assassinated before making any progress.</p><br>
<p>The emperor Nero was the first to attempt to construct the canal, personally breaking the ground with a pickaxe and removing the first basket-load of soil in 67 CE, but the project was abandoned when he died shortly afterwards. The Roman workforce, consisting of 6,000 Jewish prisoners of war, started digging 40 - trenches from both sides, while a third group at the ridge drilled deep shafts for probing the quality of the rock (which were reused in 1881 for the same purpose). According to Suetonius, the canal was dug to a distance of four stades - approximately 700 m - or about a tenth of the total distance across the isthmus. A memorial of the attempt in the form of a relief of Hercules was left by Neros workers and can still be seen in the canal cutting today. Other than this, as the modern canal follows the same course as Neros, no remains have survived.</p><br>
<p>The Greek philosopher and Roman senator Herodes Atticus is known to have considered digging a canal in the 2nd century CE, but did not get a project under way. The Venetians also considered it in 1687 after their conquest of the Peloponnese but likewise did not initiate a project.</p><br>
<h3>Construction of the modern canal</h3><br>
<p>The idea of a canal was revived after Greece gained formal independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1830. The Greek statesman Ioannis Kapodistrias asked a French engineer to assess the feasibility of the project but had to abandon it when its cost was assessed at 40 million gold francs—far too expensive for the newly independent country. Fresh impetus was given by the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 and the following year, the government of Prime Minister Thrasyvoulos Zaimis passed a law authorizing the construction of a Corinth Canal. French entrepreneurs were put in charge but, following the bankruptcy of the French company that dug the Panama Canal, French banks refused to lend money and the company went bankrupt as well. A fresh concession was granted to the Société Internationale du Canal Maritime de Corinthe in 1881, which was commissioned to construct the canal and operate it for the next 99 years. Construction was formally inaugurated on 23 April 1882 in the presence of King George I of Greece.</p><br>
<p>The companys initial capital was 30,000,000 francs, but after eight years of work it ran out of money and a bid to issue 60,000 bonds of 500 francs each flopped when less than half of the bonds were sold. The companys head, the Hungarian István Türr, went bankrupt, as did the company itself and a bank that had agreed to raise additional funds for the project. Construction resumed in 1890 when the project was transferred to a Greek company, and was completed on 25 July 1893 after eleven years&#39; work.</p><br>
<p>The canal experienced financial and operational difficulties after completion. The narrowness of the canal makes navigation difficult; its high rock walls channel high winds down its length, and the different times of the tides in the two gulfs cause strong tidal currents in the channel. For these reasons, many ship operators did not bother to use the canal and traffic was far below what had been predicted. An annual traffic of just under 4 million net tons had been anticipated but by 1906 traffic had reached only half a million net tons annually. By 1913 the total had risen to 1.5 million net tons, but the disruption caused by the First World War resulted in a major decline in traffic.</p><br>
<p>Another persistent problem was due to the heavily faulted nature of the sedimentary rock, in an active seismic zone, through which the canal is cut. The canals high limestone walls have been persistently unstable from the start. Although it was formally opened in July 1893 it was not opened to navigation until the following November, due to landslides. It was soon found that the wake from ships passing through the canal undermined the walls, causing further landslides. This required further expense in building retaining walls along the waters edge for more than half of the length of the canal, using 165,000 cubic metres of masonry. Between 1893 and 1940, it was closed for a total of four years for maintenance to stabilise the walls. In 1923 alone, 41,000 cubic metres of material fell into the canal, which took two years to clear out.</p><br>
<p>Serious damage was caused to the canal during World War II. On 26 April 1941, during the Battle of Greece between defending British troops and the invading forces of Nazi Germany, German parachutists and glider troops attempted to capture the main bridge over the canal. The bridge was defended by the British and had been wired for demolition. The Germans surprised the defenders with a glider-borne assault in the early morning of 26 April and captured the bridge, but the British set off the charges and destroyed the structure. Other authors maintain that German pioneers cut the detonation wires, and a lucky hit by British artillery triggered the explosion.</p><br>
<p>Three years later, as German forces retreated from Greece, the canal was put out of action by German "scorched earth" operations. German forces used explosives to set off landslides to block the canal, destroyed the bridges and dumped locomotives, bridge wreckage and other infrastructure into the canal to hinder repair work. The United States Army Corps of Engineers began work to clear the canal in November 1947 and reopened it for shallow-draft traffic by 7 July 1948, and for all traffic by that September.</p><br>
<h2>Layout</h2><br>
<p>The canal consists of a single channel 8 m deep, excavated at sea level (thus requiring no locks), measuring 6,343 m long by 24.6 m wide at the top and 21.3 m wide at the bottom. The rock walls, which rise 90 m above sea level, are at a near-vertical 80° angle. The canal is crossed by a railway line, a road and a motorway at a height of about 45 m. In 1988 submersible bridges were installed at sea level at each end of the canal, by the eastern harbour of Isthmia and the western harbour of Poseidonia.</p><br>
<p>Although the canal saves the 700 km journey around the Peloponnese, it is too narrow for modern ocean freighters, as it can accommodate ships only of a width up to 17.6 m and draft up to 7.3 m. Ships can pass through the canal only one convoy at a time on a one-way system. Larger ships have to be towed by tugs. The canal is currently used mainly by tourist ships; around 11,000 ships per year travel through the waterway.</p><br>
<p>Suomenlinna  or Sveaborg , until 1918 Viapori , is an inhabited sea fortress built on six islands  and which now forms part of the city of Helsinki, the capital of Finland.</p><br>
<p>Suomenlinna is a UNESCO World Heritage site and popular with tourists and locals, who enjoy it as a picturesque picnic site. Originally named Sveaborg (Fortress of Svea), or Viapori as called by Finnish-speaking Finns, it was renamed in Finnish to Suomenlinna (Castle of Finland) in 1918 for patriotic and nationalistic reasons, though it is still known by its original name in Sweden and by Swedish-speaking Finns.</p><br>
<p>The Swedish crown commenced the construction of the fortress in 1748 as protection against Russian expansionism. The general responsibility for the fortification work was given to Augustin Ehrensvärd. The original plan of the bastion fortress was strongly influenced by the ideas of Vauban, the foremost military engineer of the time, and the principles of star fort style of fortification, albeit adapted to a group of rocky islands.</p><br>
<p>In addition to the island fortress itself, seafacing fortifications on the mainland would ensure that an enemy would not acquire a beach-head from which to stage attacks. The plan was also to stock munitions for the whole Finnish contingent of the Swedish Army and Royal Swedish Navy there. In the Finnish War the fortress surrendered to Russia on May 3, 1808, paving the way for the occupation of Finland by Russian forces in 1809.</p><br>
<h2>The Swedish era</h2><br>
<h3>Background</h3><br>
<p>Early on in the Great Northern War, Russia used the Swedish weakness in the Ingermanland and captured the area near river Neva as well as the Swedish forts, Nyen and Nöteborg, built to protect it. In 1703 Peter the Great had founded his new capital, Saint Petersburg, in that furthest-flung corner of the Gulf of Finland. In the approach to it he built the fortified naval base of Kronstadt. Russia soon became a maritime power and a force to be reckoned with in the Baltic Sea. The situation posed a threat to Sweden, which until that time had been the dominant power in the Baltic. This was visibly demonstrated by the use of naval forces in the Russian capture of Viborg in 1710. The main Swedish naval base at Karlskrona was far to the south in accordance with Swedish needs for its navy in the 17th century which often resulted in Swedish ships reaching the coast of Finland only after Russian ships and troops had either started or completed their spring campaigns.</p><br>
<p>Lack of coastal defenses was keenly felt with Russian landings on spring of 1713 to Helsingfors and with Swedish failure to blockade Hanko Peninsula in 1714. A Russian naval campaign against Swedish coast towards the end of the Great Northern War further outlined the need of developing Finnish coastal defenses. Immediately after the war had ended first plans were set into motion in Sweden to construct an archipelago fleet and a base of operations for it in Finland. However, nothing with regard to Sveaborg took place until the end of Russo-Swedish War of 1741–1743. Fortifications were left unfinished at Hamina and at Lappeenranta while Hämeenlinna was being built into a supply base. Lack of funds, unwillingness to devote funds for defending Finland and just before the war belief that Russia would be pushed away from the Baltic Sea were the main causes for the lack of progress.</p><br>
<p>In the following Russo-Swedish War of 1741–1743 which quickly turned from Swedish attack into Russian occupation of Finland again underlined the importance of developing fortifications to Finland. Lack of base of operations for naval forces made it difficult for the Swedish navy to operate in the area. Other European states were also concerned about developments, especially France, with which Sweden had concluded a military alliance. After lengthy debate the Swedish parliament decided in 1747 to fortify the Russian frontier and to establish a naval base at Helsinki as a counter to Kronstadt. The frontier fortifications were established in Svartholm near the small town of Lovisa.</p><br>
<h3>Construction</h3><br>
<p>Sweden started building the fortress in 1748, when Finland was still a part of the Swedish kingdom. Augustin Ehrensvärd (1710&ndash;1772) and his gigantic fortification work on the islands off the town of Helsinki brought the district a new and unexpected importance. The fortification of Helsinki and its islands began in January 1748, when Ehrensvärd, as a young lieutenant colonel, came to direct the operations. Fortifications were also built on the Russian side of the new border during the 18th century and some of the Swedish ones were added to.</p><br>
<p>There were two main aspects to Ehrensvärd&#39;s design for the fortress: a series of independent fortifications on each of the linked islands and, at the very heart of the complex, a navy dockyard. Initially the soldiers were housed in the vaults of the fortifications, while the officers had specially built quarters integrated into the baroque cityscape composition of the overall plan. The most ambitious plan was left only half complete: a baroque square on Iso Mustasaari partly based on the model of Place Vendôme in Paris. As the construction work progressed, more residential buildings were built, many following the shape of the fortification lines. Ehrensvärd and some of the other officers were keen artists and painted oil paintings presenting a view of life in the fortress during its construction, and giving the impression of a lively "fortress town" community.</p><br>
<p>Ehrensvärds plan contained two fortifications: a sea fortress at Svartholm and place darmes at Helsingfors. Sveaborg was to be just the sea fortress with additional landside fortifications making up for the rest. Additional plans were made for fortifying the Hanko Peninsula, but these were postponed. Construction started in the spring of 1748 kept expanding and by September had around 2,500 men building them. Due to the repeated Russian threats in 1749 and 1750 more effort was placed on the fortifications on the islands at the expense of the land fortifications to secure a safe base of operations for the Swedish naval units along the Finnish coast. Fortifications spread along the islands Långören (Särkkä), Västersvartö (Länsi-Mustasaari), Lilla Östersvartö (Pikku-Mustasaari), Stora Östersvartö (Iso Mustasaari), Vargö (Susisaari), and Vargskär (Susiluoto), the last of which became known during construction as Gustavssvärd (Kustaanmiekka); "Gustav&#39;s sword".</p><br>
<p>Using the military garrisoned in Finland as the workforce, construction continued with over 6,000 workers in 1750. Fortifications at Gustavssvärd were completed in 1751 and the main fortifications on Vargö were ready in 1754 fully operational if unfinished. These accomplishments did not reduce the pace of construction and in 1755 there were 7,000 workers constructing the fortifications outside of Helsingfors which at the time had around 2,000 residents. Swedish participation to the Seven Years&#39; War halted the construction efforts in 1757 which also marks the end of the rapid construction phase of the Sveaborg.</p><br>
<p>After the Cap party rise to power in 1766 Ehrensvärd was relieved of his post and replaced with ardent Cap supporter Christopher Falkengréen. However, in 1769 when the Hat party again gained power, Ehrensvärd was again placed in command of the Swedish archipelago fleet in Finland, officially arméens flotta ("fleet of the army"). By the time Ehrensvärd died in 1772 no progress had been done at the fortifications. Efforts to improve fortifications continued under Jacob Magnus Sprengtporten, but his tenure was cut short with disagreements with the King Gustav III. Once again efforts slowed down as garrisons were reduced and in 1776 Sveaborgs commander reported that he couldnt even men tenth of the artillery placed to the fort. Even in 1788 at the start of the Russo-Swedish War of 1788–1790 Sveaborg remained in partially incomplete state.</p><br>
<p>Facilities for constructing ships for the Swedish archipelago fleet were constructed to Sveaborg in the 1760s. In 1764 the first three archipelago frigates launched from Viapori. In addition to the construction of the fortifications and ships, naval officer training was started by Ehrensvärd by his own expense at Sveaborg in 1770. It took until 1779 before a naval military school was formally founded to Sveaborg.</p><br>
<h3>Service</h3><br>
<p>Sveaborg was formed and stocked according to the needs of the Swedish archipelago fleet and was unable to repair and refit the Swedish battlefleet after the battle of Hogland. Facilities were found lacking at Sveaborg especially in the areas intended for taking care of the sick and wounded. Russian control of the waters outside of Sveaborg practically blockaded the Swedish battlefleet to Sveaborg. By cutting the coastal sea route past Hangö, Russians prevented supplies from being shipped from Sweden to the Sveaborg. The Swedish fleet finally managed to set sail for its base at Karlskrona on 20 November when sea had already frozen badly enough that some ships ice had to be sawed open before they could move. Fleet couldn&#39;t winter over at Sveaborg since it lacked supplies and facilities for fitting the ships.</p><br>
<p>While the route to Sweden was open again in late 1788 and in early 1789, Russian ships cut the connection from Sveaborg to Sweden by forming a blockade at Porkkala cape. Sveaborg was the most important location for archipelago fleet&#39;s ship construction and fitting in the war. Even then and despite the efforts, several ships remained unfinished until the end of the war at Sveaborg. Importance of the Sveaborg did not escape the Russians whose broad operational plan for 1790 included siege of Sveaborg both from sea and land.</p><br>
<p>Following a pact between Alexander I and Napoleon, Russia launched a campaign against Sweden and occupied Finland in 1808. The Russians easily took Helsinki in early 1808 and began bombarding the fortress.</p><br>
<p>Its commander, Carl Olof Cronstedt, negotiated a cease-fire. When no Swedish reinforcements had arrived by May, Sveaborg, with almost 7,000 men, surrendered. The reasons for Cronstedt&#39;s actions remain somewhat unclear; but the hopeless situation, psychological warfare by the Russians, some (possibly) bribed advisors, fear for the lives of a large civilian population, lack of gunpowder, combined with their physical isolation, are some likely causes for the surrender. By the Treaty of Fredrikshamn in 1809 Finland was ceded from Sweden and became an autonomous grand duchy within the Russian Empire. The Swedish period in Finnish history, which had lasted some seven centuries, came to an end.</p><br>
<h2>Under Russian rule</h2><br>
<p>After taking over the fortress, the Russians started an extensive building program, mostly extra barracks, and extending the dockyard and reinforcement to the fortification lines. The long period of peace following the transfer of power was shattered by the Crimean War of 1853&ndash;56. The allies decided to engage Russia on two fronts and sent an Anglo-French fleet to the Baltic Sea. For two summers the fleet shelled the towns and fortifications along the Finnish coast. The bombardment of Suomenlinna (then known as Sveaborg or Viapori) lasted 47 hours and the fortress was badly damaged. They were unable to knock out the Russian guns; after the bombardment the Anglo-French fleet sent no troops ashore and instead set sail for Kronstadt.</p><br>
<p>After the Crimean War extensive restoration work was begun at Suomenlinna. A new ring of earthworks with artillery emplacements was built at the western and southern edges of the islands.</p><br>
<p>The next stage in the arming of Suomenlinna and the Gulf of Finland came in the build-up to World War I. The fortress and its surrounding islands became part of "Peter the Great&#39;s naval fortification" designed to safeguard the capital, Saint Petersburg.</p><br>
<p>The fortress became part of an independent Finland in 1917, following the Russian Revolution. After the Finnish Civil War, a prison camp existed on the island.</p><br>
<h2>Present</h2><br>
<p>No longer very practical as a military base, Suomenlinna was turned over to civilian administration in 1973. An independent government department (the Governing Body of Suomenlinna) was formed to administer the unique complex. At the time there was some debate over its Finnish name, with some suggesting that the old name Viapori be restored, but the newer name was retained. The presence of the military on the islands has been drastically scaled down in recent decades. The Suomenlinna garrison houses the Naval Academy (Merisotakoulu) of the Finnish Navy. Suomenlinna still flies the war flag, or the swallow-tailed state flag of Finland.</p><br>
<p>Suomenlinna is now one of the most popular tourist attractions in Helsinki as well as a popular picnicking spot for the city&#39;s inhabitants. On a sunny summer day the islands, and in particular the ferries, can get quite crowded. In 2009, a record 713,000 people visited Suomenlinna, most between May and September. A number of museums exist on the island, as well as the last surviving Finnish submarine, Vesikko.</p><br>
<p>Suomenlinna has always been much more than just a part of Helsinki &mdash; it is a town within the town. There are about 900 permanent inhabitants on the islands, and 350 people work there year-round. This is one of the features that makes Suomenlinna unique: the fortress is not simply a museum but a living community.</p><br>
<p>There is a minimum-security penal labor colony (työsiirtola) in Suomenlinna, whose inmates work on the maintenance and reconstruction of the fortifications. Only volunteer inmates who pledge non-use of controlled substances are accepted to the labour colony.</p><br>
<p>For the general public, Suomenlinna is served by ferries all year, and a service tunnel supplying heating, water and electricity was built in 1982. From the beginning of the 1990s, the tunnel was modified so that it can also be used for emergency transport.</p><br>
<p>Suomenlinna has been known as an avant-garde location for culture. In the mid-1980s the Nordic Arts Centre was established on the island. Several buildings have been converted into artists&#39; studios, which are let by the administration at reasonable rates. During the summer there is an art school for children. The performances of the Suomenlinna summer theatre regularly draw full houses.</p><br>
<p>Between 2 and 6 September 2015, the Finnish postal service ran a test of the use of drones to deliver parcels between Helsinki and Suomenlinna. The parcels were limited to 3 kg or less, and flights were under the control of a pilot.</p><br>
<h2>Politics</h2><br>
<p>Results of the Finnish parliamentary election, 2011 in Suomenlinna:</p><br>
<p>Green League 23.8%</p><br>
<p>Left Alliance 18.8%</p><br>
<p>National Coalition Party 17.3%</p><br>
<p>Social Democratic Party 16.3%</p><br>
<p>Finns Party 14.2%</p><br>
<p>Swedish People&#39;s Party 2.9%</p><br>
<p>Centre Party 2.5%</p><br>
<p>Christian Democrats 2.5%</p><br>
<h2>Timeline</h2><br>
<p>1748: Building of Sveaborg (Fortress of Svea/Sweden - Swedish), later to be named Suomenlinna in 1918 (Fortress of Finland - Finnish), begins under command of Augustin Ehrensvärd.</p><br>
<p>1808: Sveaborg surrenders to Russia without any opposition during the Finnish War.</p><br>
<p>1809: Treaty of Fredrikshamn: Finland becomes part of Russia.</p><br>
<p>1855: Crimean War: Anglo-French navy bombards Suomenlinna and causes substantial damage.</p><br>
<p>1906: Viapori Rebellion: Russian soldiers plan to depose the tsar.</p><br>
<p>1914-1917: A ring of ground and sea fortifications, called Krepost Sveaborg, is built around Helsinki.</p><br>
<p>1917: Finland becomes independent after the Russian Revolution.</p><br>
<p>1918: Name Suomenlinna becomes official name of the fortress in Finnish, it retains its Swedish name Sveaborg in Swedish. Prison camp of Red rebels is located in Suomenlinna after the Finnish Civil War.</p><br>
<p>1921 Valtion lentokonetehdas (State Aircraft Factory) starts building aeroplanes and powered ice sleighs in Suomenlinna for the Finnish Air Force. In 1936 the factory moves to Tampere.</p><br>
<p>1973: Suomenlinna becomes civil administration area.</p><br>
<p>1991: Suomenlinna becomes UNESCO World Heritage site.</p><br>
<p>1998: Suomenlinna&#39;s 250th birthday.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The Suomenlinna district of Helsinki consists of eight islands. Five of the islands &mdash; Kustaanmiekka (which has the greatest concentration of fortifications), Pikku Mustasaari, Iso Mustasaari, Länsi-Mustasaari and Susisaari &mdash; are connected by either bridges or sandbars. The unconnected islands are Särkkä, Lonna and Pormestarinluodot. The total land area is 80 hectares (0.8 km²).</p><br>
<p>Instead of the normal Finnish postal addressing scheme (consisting of a street name and house number), the addresses consist of letter code for island and then a house number. For example, C 83 is house #83 in Iso-Mustasaari (code C). The postal code for the Suomenlinna district is 00190.</p><br>
<h2>In fiction</h2><br>
<p>George R. R. Martin wrote a short story about the surrender of Viapori, "The Fortress", when he was a college student. It was published in his 2007 volume of short stories, Dreamsongs.</p><br>
<p>Shivta , is an ancient city in the Negev Desert of Israel located 43 kilometers southwest of Beersheba. Shivta was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in June 2005.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Long considered a classic Nabataean town on the ancient spice route, archaeologists are now considering the possibility that Shivta was a Byzantine agricultural colony and a way station for pilgrims en route to the Saint Catherine&#39;s Monastery in the Sinai Peninsula.</p><br>
<p>Roman ruins from the first century BCE have been unearthed in the southern part of the town, but most of the archaeological findings date to the Byzantine period. Shivta’s water supply was based on surface runoff collected in large reservoirs.</p><br>
<p>Three Byzantine churches (a main church and two smaller churches), 2 wine-presses, residential areas and administrative buildings have been excavated at Shivta. After the Arab conquest in the 7th century CE, the population dwindled. It was finally abandoned in the 8th or 9th Century CE.</p><br>
<p>In 1933-34, American archaeologist Harris D. Colt conducted a dig at Shivta. The house he lived in bears an inscription in ancient Greek that reads: “With good luck. Colt built (this house) with his own money."</p><br>
<p>The wine presses at Shivta give an insight into the scale of wine production at the time. According to the calculations of archaeologists, the Nabatean/Byzantine village of Shivta produced about two million liters of wine.</p><br>
<p>Adjacent to the site is a large farm that uses Nabatean agricultural techniques of irrigation, sowing and reaping.</p><br>
<p>Lake Winnipeg  is a very large, but relatively shallow 24,514 km&sup2; lake in central North America, in the province of Manitoba, Canada, with its southern tip about 55 km north of the city of Winnipeg. It is the largest lake within southern Canada&#39;s borders, and it is part of the most undeveloped large watershed of southern Canada.</p><br>
<p>Lake Winnipeg is Canadas sixth-largest freshwater lake, and the third-largest freshwater lake contained entirely within Canada, but it is relatively shallow (mean depth of 12 m) excluding a narrow 36 m deep channel between the northern and southern basins. It is the eleventh-largest freshwater lake on Earth. The lakes east side has pristine boreal forests and rivers that are being promoted as a potential United Nations World Heritage Park. The lake is 416 km from north to south, with remote sandy beaches, large limestone cliffs, and many bat caves in some areas. Manitoba Hydro uses the lake as one of the largest reservoirs in the world. There are many islands, most of them undeveloped.</p><br>
<h2>Hydrography</h2><br>
<p>Lake Winnipeg has the largest watershed of any lake in Canada, receiving water from three US states (North Dakota, South Dakota and Minnesota) and the four Canadian provinces of Alberta, Saskatchewan, Ontario and Manitoba. The lake&#39;s watershed measures about 982,900 km&sup2;. Its drainage is about 40 times larger than its surface, a ratio bigger than any other large lake in the world. Given the massive watershed and the relatively small volume of water in the lake, it is dominated by events in its watershed. It is not surprising to find it showing the effects of materials being added to it as a result of activities in the watershed.</p><br>
<p>Lake Winnipeg drains northward into the Nelson River at an average annual rate of 2,066 cubic metres per second (72,960 cu ft/s), and forms part of the Hudson Bay watershed, which is one of the largest in the world. This watershed area was historically known as Ruperts Land when the Hudsons Bay Company was chartered in 1670.</p><br>
<h3>Tributaries</h3><br>
<p>The Saskatchewan River flows in from the west through Cedar Lake, the Red River (including Assiniboine River) flows in from the south and the Winnipeg River (draining Lake of the Woods, Rainy River and Rainy Lake) enters from the southeast. The Dauphin River enters from the west draining Lake Manitoba and Lake Winnipegosis.</p><br>
<p>The Bloodvein River, Berens River, Poplar River and the Manigotagan River flow in from the eastern side of the lake which is within the Canadian Shield.</p><br>
<p>Other tributaries of Lake Winnipeg (clockwise from the south end) include; Meleb Drain (drainage canal), Drunken River, Icelandic River, Washow Bay Creek, Sugar Creek, Beaver Creek, Mill Creek, Moose Creek, Fisher River, Jackhead River, Kinwow Bay Creek, Jackpine Creek, Mantagao River, Solomons Creek, Jumping Creek, Warpath River, South Two Rivers, North Two Rivers, South Twin Creek, North Twin Creek, Saskachaywiak Creek, Eating Point Creek, Woody Point Creeks, Muskwa Creek, Buffalo Creek, Fiddler Creek, Sturgeon Creek, Hungry River, Cypress Creek, William River, Bélanger River, Mukutawa River, Crane Creek, Kapawekapuk Creek, Marchand Creek, Leaf River, Pigeon River, Taskapekawe Creek, Bradbury River, Petopeko Creek, Loon Creek, Sanders Creek, Rice River, Wanipigow River, Barrie Creek, Mutch Creek, Sandy River, Black River, Sandy Creek, Catfish Creek, Jackfish Creek, Marais Creek, Brokenhead River and Devils Creek.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>Lake Winnipeg and Lake Manitoba are remnants of prehistoric Glacial Lake Agassiz, although there is evidence of a desiccated south basin of Lake Winnipeg approximately 4,000 years ago. The area between the lakes is called the Interlake Region, and the whole region is called the Manitoba Lowlands.</p><br>
<h2>Natural History</h2><br>
<h3>Fish</h3><br>
<p>The varying habitats found within the lake support a large number of fish species, more than any other lake in Canada west of the Great Lakes. Families represented include lampreys (Petromyzontidae), sturgeon (Acipenseridae), mooneyes (Hiodontidae), minnows (Cyprinidae), suckers (Catostomidae), catfishes (Ictaluridae), pikes (Esocidae), trout and whitefish (Salmonidae), troutperch (Percopsidae), codfishes (Gadidae), sticklebacks (Gasterosteidae), sculpins (Cottidae), sunfishes (Centrarchidae), perch (Percidae), and drums (Sciaenidae).</p><br>
<p>Two fish species present in the lake are considered to be at risk. The Shortjaw cisco is considered a threatened species. The Bigmouth buffalo is considered a species of special concern.</p><br>
<p>Rainbow trout and Brown trout are stocked in Manitoba waters by provincial fisheries as part of a put and take program to support angling opportunities. Neither species is able to sustain itself independently in Manitoba.</p><br>
<p>Smallmouth bass was first recorded from the lake in 2002, indicating that populations introduced elsewhere in the watershed are now present in the lake.</p><br>
<p>White bass were first recorded from the lake in 1963, ten years after being introduced into Lake Ashtabula in South Dakota.</p><br>
<p>Common carp were introduced to the lake through the Red River of the North and are firmly established.</p><br>
<h3>Birds</h3><br>
<p>Lake Winnipeg provides feeding and nesting sites for a wide variety of birds associated with water during the summer months.</p><br>
<p>Isolated, uninhabited islands provide nesting sites for colonial nesting birds including pelicans, gulls and terns. Large marshes, shores and shallows allow these birds to successfully feed themselves and their young. Pipestone Rocks are considered a globally significant site for American white pelicans. In 1998, an estimated 3.7% of the world&#39;s population of this bird at the time were counted nesting on the rocky outcrops. The same site is significant within North America for the numbers of colonial waterbirds using the area, especially Common terns. Other globally significant nesting areas are found at Gull Island and Sandhill Island, Little George Island and Louis Island. Birds nesting at these sites include Common and Caspian terns, Herring gull, Ring-billed gull, Double-crested cormorant and Greater scaup.</p><br>
<p>Lake Winnipeg has two sites considered globally important in the fall migration. Large populations of waterfowl and shorebirds use the sand bars east of Riverton as a staging area for fall migration. The Netley-Libau Marsh, where the Red River enters Lake Winnipeg, is used by geese, ducks and swallows to gather for the southward migration.</p><br>
<p>Piping Plovers, an endangered species of shorebird, are found in several locations around the lake. The Gull Bay Spits, south of the town of Grand Rapids are considered nationally significant nesting sites for this species.</p><br>
<h3>A list of protected areas on Lake Winnipeg</h3><br>
<p>Beaver Creek Provincial Park</p><br>
<p>Camp Morton Provincial Park</p><br>
<p>Elk Island Provincial Park</p><br>
<p>Fisher Bay Provincial Park</p><br>
<p>Grand Beach Provincial Park</p><br>
<p>Hecla-Grindstone Provincial Park</p><br>
<p>Hnausa Beach Provincial Park</p><br>
<p>Kinwow Provincial Park</p><br>
<p>Patricia Beach Provincial Park</p><br>
<p>Sturgeon Bay Provincial Park</p><br>
<p>Winnipeg Beach Provincial Park</p><br>
<h3>Environmental issues</h3><br>
<p>Lake Winnipeg is suffering from many environmental issues such as an explosion in the population of algae, caused by excessive amounts of phosphorus seeping into the lake, therefore not absorbing enough nitrogen. The phosphorus levels are approaching a point that could be dangerous for human health.</p><br>
<p>The Global Nature Fund declared Lake Winnipeg as the "threatened lake of the year" in 2013.</p><br>
<p>In 2015, there was a major explosion of zebra mussels in Lake Winnipeg, the reduction of which is next to impossible due to a lack of natural predators in the lake. The mussels are devastating to the ecological opportunities of the lake.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>It is believed Henry Kelsey was the first European to see the lake, in 1690. He adopted the Cree language name for the lake: wīnipēk (ᐐᓂᐯᐠ), meaning "muddy waters". La Vérendrye referred to the lake as Ouinipigon when he built the first forts in the area in the 1730s. Later, the Red River Colony to its south took the lake&#39;s name for Winnipeg, the capital of Manitoba.</p><br>
<p>Lake Winnipeg lies along one of the oldest trading routes in North America to have flown the British flag. For several centuries, furs were traded along this route between York Factory on Hudson Bay (which was the longtime headquarters for the Hudsons Bay Company) over Lake Winnipeg and the Red River Trails to the confluence of the Minnesota and Mississippi Rivers at Saint Paul, Minnesota. This was a strategic trading route for the First British Empire. With the establishment of the Second British Empire after Britains loss of the Thirteen Colonies, a significant increase in trade occurred over Lake Winnipeg between Rupert&#39;s Land and the United States.</p><br>
<h2>Economy</h2><br>
<h3>Transportation</h3><br>
<p>Because of its length, the Lake Winnipeg water system and the lake was an important transportation route in the province before the railways reached Manitoba. It continued to be a major transportation route even after the railways reached the province. In addition to aboriginal canoes and York boats, several steamboats plied the lake, including Anson Northup, City of Selkirk, Colvile, Keenora, Premier, Princess, Winnitoba, Wolverine and most recently the diesel-powered MS Lord Selkirk II passenger cruise ship.</p><br>
<h3>Communities</h3><br>
<p>Communities on the lake include Grand Marais, Lester Beach, Riverton, Gimli, Winnipeg Beach, Victoria Beach, Hillside beach, Pine Falls, Manigotagan, Berens River, Bloodvein, Sandy Hook, Albert Beach, Hecla Village and Grand Rapids. A number of pleasure beaches are found on the southern end of the lake, which are popular in the summer, attracting many visitors from Winnipeg, about 80 km south.</p><br>
<h3>Commercial fisheries</h3><br>
<p>Lake Winnipeg has important commercial fisheries. Its catch makes up a major part of Manitoba&#39;s $30 million-a-year fishing industry. The lake was once the main source of goldeye in Canada, which is why the fish is sometimes called Winnipeg goldeye. Walleye and whitefish together account for over 90 percent of its commercial fishing.</p><br>
<p>Chaeronea  is a village and a former municipality in Boeotia, Greece, located about 80 kilometers east of Delphi. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality Livadeia, of which it is a municipal unit. The municipal unit has an area of 111.445 km, the community 26.995 km. Population 1,382 . It is located by the mountain Thourion and in the Kifisós river valley, NW of Thebes.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Chaeronea was the site of several historical battles. Best known is that of 338 BCE, between Philip II of Macedon and a coalition of various Greek states, mainly Thebes and Athens. During the battle, the elite unit of Theban soldiers known as the Sacred Band of Thebes was wiped out completely (See Battle of Chaeronea). In 1818, the so-called Lion of Chaeronea, a nearly 20 ft funerary monument erected in honor of the Sacred Band, was rediscovered by English travellers. The fragmentary monument was reassembled and installed in 1902 by an organisation called the Order of Chaeronea atop a pedestal at the site of its discovery. The ancient biographer and essayist Plutarch was born in Chaeronea, and several times refers to these and other facts about his native place in his writings.</p><br>
<p>Other battles around Chaeronea:</p><br>
<p>After capturing Chaeronea in 447 BCE the Athenians were attacked and defeated in the same year by the Boeotians at the Battle of Coronea.</p><br>
<p>In 146 BCE the Roman general Matellus defeated a unit of 1,000 Arkadians.</p><br>
<p>In 86 BCE, Archelaus and Taxilos, generals of Mithridates VI of Pontus, landed in Boeotia. They were met by the Roman general Lucius Cornelius Sulla near Chaeronea and in the ensuing battle the Mithridatics were defeated and retreated to Chalcis.</p><br>
<p>Battle between Catalans and Franks in March 15, 1311. The Catalan Company defeated the Franks and took control of great part of Greece. Turks participated with the side of Catalans. The battle is described by Ramon Muntaner, a Catalan soldier.</p><br>
<p>Battle between Greeks and Turks in 1823 and 1825 during the Greek Revolution (1821-1828).</p><br>
<p>The site of the Theban mass grave was excavated in 1879-80 by P. Stamatakis, and the prehistoric site of Magoula Balamenou 23 years later by the archaeologist G. Soteriadis.</p><br>
<p>Mount Etna  is an active stratovolcano on the east coast of Sicily, Italy, in the Metropolitan City of Catania, between the cities of Messina and Catania. It lies above the convergent plate margin between the African Plate and the Eurasian Plate. It is the tallest active volcano in Europe outside the Caucasus. It is currently 3,329 m high, though this varies with summit eruptions. It is the highest peak in Italy south of the Alps. Etna covers an area of 1,190 km&sup2; with a basal circumference of 140 km. This makes it by far the largest of the three active volcanoes in Italy, being about two and a half times the height of the next largest, Mount Vesuvius. Only Mount Teide in Tenerife  surpasses it in the whole of the European–North-African region west of the Black Sea. In Greek Mythology, the deadly monster Typhon was trapped under this mountain by Zeus, the god of the sky and thunder and king of gods, and the forges of Hephaestus were said to also be located underneath it.</p><br>
<p>Mount Etna is one of the most active volcanoes in the world and is in an almost constant state of activity. The fertile volcanic soils support extensive agriculture, with vineyards and orchards spread across the lower slopes of the mountain and the broad Plain of Catania to the south. Due to its history of recent activity and nearby population, Mount Etna has been designated a Decade Volcano by the United Nations. In June 2013, it was added to the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>The word Etna is from the Greek αἴθω (aithō), meaning "I burn", through an iotacist pronunciation. In Classical Greek, it is called Αἴτνη (Aítnē), a name given also to Catania and the city originally known as Inessa. In Latin it is called Aetna. In Arabic, it was called جبل النار (the Mountain of Fire).</p><br>
<p>It is also known as Mungibeddu in Sicilian and Mongibello or Montebello in Italian (the Italian word literally means "beautiful mountain"). According to another hypothesis, the term Mongibello comes from the Latin Mulciber (qui ignem mulcet, "who placates the fire"), one of the Latin names of the Roman god Vulcan. Another theory is that Mongibello came from Italian monte plus Arabic jabal, both meaning "mountain".</p><br>
<p>Now, the term Mongibello indicates the mountain&#39;s top area of the two central craters encompassing also the craters in the southeast and the northeast of the volcanic cone.</p><br>
<h2>History of volcanic eruptions</h2><br>
<h3>Geological history</h3><br>
<p>Volcanic activity first took place at Etna about 500,000 years ago, with eruptions occurring beneath the sea off the ancient coastline of Sicily. About 300,000 years ago, volcanism began occurring to the southwest of the summit (centre top of volcano) then, before activity moved towards the present centre 170,000 years ago. Eruptions at this time built up the first major volcanic edifice, forming a stratovolcano in alternating explosive and effusive eruptions. The growth of the mountain was occasionally interrupted by major eruptions, leading to the collapse of the summit to form calderas.</p><br>
<p>From about 35,000 to 15,000 years ago, Etna experienced some highly explosive eruptions, generating large pyroclastic flows, which left extensive ignimbrite deposits. Ash from these eruptions has been found as far away as south of Rome&#39;s border, 800 km to the north.</p><br>
<p>Thousands of years ago, the eastern flank of the mountain experienced a catastrophic collapse, generating an enormous landslide in an event similar to that seen in the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens. The landslide left a large depression in the side of the volcano, known as Valle del Bove (Valley of the Ox). Research published in 2006 suggested this occurred around 8000 years ago, and caused a huge tsunami, which left its mark in several places in the eastern Mediterranean. It may have been the reason the settlement of Atlit Yam (Israel), now below sea level, was suddenly abandoned around that time.</p><br>
<p>The steep walls of the valley have suffered subsequent collapses on numerous occasions. The strata exposed in the valley walls provide an important and easily accessible record of Etna&#39;s eruptive history.</p><br>
<p>The most recent collapse event at the summit of Etna is thought to have occurred about 2,000 years ago, forming what is known as the Piano Caldera. This caldera has been almost entirely filled by subsequent lava eruptions, but is still visible as a distinct break in the slope of the mountain near the base of the present-day summit cone.</p><br>
<h3>Eruptions</h3><br>
<h4>Historical eruptions</h4><br>
<p>Eruptions of Etna follow a variety of patterns. Most occur at the summit, where there are five distinct craters — the Northeast Crater, the Voragine, the Bocca Nuova, and the Southeast Crater Complex (2). Other eruptions occur on the flanks, which have more than 300 vents ranging in size from small holes in the ground to large craters hundreds of metres across. Summit eruptions can be highly explosive and spectacular, but rarely threaten the inhabited areas around the volcano. In contrast, flank eruptions can occur down to a few hundred metres altitude, close to or even well within the inhabited areas. Numerous villages and small towns lie around or on cones of past flank eruptions. Since the year AD 1600, at least 60 flank eruptions and countless summit eruptions have occurred; nearly half of these have happened since the start of the 20th century. Since 2000, Etna has had four flank eruptions — in 2001, 2002–2003, 2004–2005, and 2008–2009. Summit eruptions occurred in 2006, 2007–2008, January–April 2012, and again in July–October 2012.</p><br>
<p>The first known record of eruption at Etna is that of Diodorus Siculus.</p><br>
<p>In 396 BC, an eruption of Etna reportedly thwarted the Carthaginians in their attempt to advance on Syracuse during the Second Sicilian War.</p><br>
<p>A particularly violent explosive (Plinian) summit eruption occurred in 122 BC, and caused heavy tephra falls to the southeast, including the town of Catania, where many roofs collapsed. To help with reconstruction after the devastating effects of the eruption, the Roman government exempted the population of Catania from paying taxes for ten years.</p><br>
<p>The Roman poet Virgil gave what was probably a first-hand description of an eruption in the Aeneid.</p><br>
<p>During the first 1500 years AD, many eruptions have gone unreported (or records have been lost); among the more significant are: (1) an eruption in about 1030 AD near Monte Ilice on the lower southeast flank, which produced a lava flow that travelled about 10 km, reaching the sea north of Acireale; the villages of Santa Tecla and Stazzo are built on the broad delta built by this lava flow into the sea; (2) an eruption in about 1160 (or 1224), from a fissure at only 350 – elevation on the south-southeast flank near the village of Mascalucia, whose lava flow reached the sea just to the north of Catania, in the area now occupied by the portion of the city named Ognina.</p><br>
<p>Etna&#39;s most destructive eruption since 122 BC started on 11 March 1669 and produced lava flows that destroyed at least 10 villages on its southern flank before reaching the city walls of the town of Catania five weeks later, on 15 April. The lava was largely diverted by these walls into the sea to the south of the city, filling the harbour of Catania. A small portion of lava eventually broke through a fragile section of the city walls on the western side of Catania and destroyed a few buildings before stopping in the rear of the Benedictine monastery, without reaching the centre of the town. Contrary to widespread reports of up to 15,000 (or even 20,000) human fatalities caused by the lava, contemporaneous accounts written both in Italian and English mention no deaths related to the 1669 eruption (but give very precise figures of the number of buildings destroyed, the area of cultivated land lost, and the economic damage). Therefore, it is uncertain where the enormous number of fatalities can be attributed. One possibility is confusion between this eruption and an earthquake that devastated southeast Sicily (including Catania) 24 years later in 1693. A study on the damage and fatalities caused by eruptions of Etna in historical times reveals that only 77 human deaths are attributable with certainty to eruptions of Etna, most recently in 1987 when two tourists were killed by a sudden explosion near the summit.</p><br>
<h4>Recent eruptions</h4><br>
<p>A large lava flow from an eruption in 1928 led to the destruction of a population centre for the first time since the 1669 eruption. The eruption started high on Etnas northeast flank on 2 November. Then new eruptive fissures opened at decreasing elevations down the flank of the volcano. The third and most vigorous of these fissures opened late on 4 November at an unusually low elevation, approximately 1,200 m above sea-level, in a zone known as Ripe della Naca. The village of Mascali, lying down-slope of the Ripe della Naca, was almost completely destroyed in two days. Only a church and a few surrounding buildings survived in the north part of the village, called SantAntonino or "il quartiere". During the last days of the eruption, the flow interrupted the Messina-Catania railway line and destroyed the train station of Mascali. The event was used by Benito Mussolini&#39;s fascist regime for propaganda purposes, with the evacuation, aid, and rebuilding operations being presented as models of fascist planning. Mascali was rebuilt on a new site, and its church contains the Italian fascist symbol of the torch, placed above the statue of Jesus Christ. In early November 2008, the town of Mascali commemorated the 80th anniversary of the eruption and destruction of the village with a number of public events where eyewitnesses shared their memories of the eruption.</p><br>
<p>Other major 20th-century eruptions occurred in 1949, 1971, 1979, 1981, 1983 and 1991–1993. In 1971, lava buried the Etna Observatory (built in the late 19th century), destroyed the first generation of the Etna cable-car, and seriously threatened several small villages on Etnas east flank. In March 1981, the town of Randazzo on the northwestern flank of Etna narrowly escaped destruction by unusually fast-moving lava flows. That eruption was remarkably similar to one in 1928 that destroyed Mascali. The 1991–1993 eruption saw the town of Zafferana threatened by a lava flow, but successful diversion efforts saved the town with the loss of only one building a few hundred metres from the towns margin. Initially, such efforts consisted of the construction of earth barriers built perpendicularly to the flow direction; it was hoped that the eruption would stop before the artificial basins created behind the barriers would be completely filled. Instead, the eruption continued, and lava surmounted the barriers, heading directly toward Zafferana. Engineers then decided to use explosives near the source of the lava flow, to disrupt a very efficient lava tube system through which the lava travelled for up to 7 km without essentially losing heat and fluidity. The main explosion on 23 May 1992 destroyed the tube and forced the lava into a new artificial channel, far from Zafferana, and it would have taken months to re-establish a long lava tube. Shortly after the blasting, the rate of lava emission dropped, and during the remainder of the eruption (until 30 March 1993) the lava never advanced close to the town again.</p><br>
<p>Following six years (1995–2001) of unusually intense activity at the four summit craters of Etna, the volcano produced its first flank eruption since 1991–1993 in July–August 2001. This eruption, which involved activity from seven distinct eruptive fissures mostly on the south slope of the volcano, was a mass-media eruption, because it occurred at the height of the tourist season and numerous reporters and journalists were already in Italy to cover the G8 summit in Genoa. It also occurred close to one of the tourist areas on the volcano, and thus was easily accessible. Part of the "Etna Sud" tourist area, including the arrival station of the Etna cable car, were damaged by this eruption, which otherwise was a rather modest-sized event by Etna standards.</p><br>
<p>In 2002–2003, a much larger eruption threw up a huge column of ash that could easily be seen from space and fell as far away as Libya, 600 km south across the Mediterranean Sea. Seismic activity in this eruption caused the eastern flanks of the volcano to slip by up to two metres, and many houses on the flanks of the volcano experienced structural damage. The eruption also completely destroyed the tourist station Piano Provenzana, on the northeastern flank of the volcano, and part of the tourist station "Etna Sud" around the Rifugio Sapienza on the south flank. Footage from the eruptions was recorded by Lucasfilm and integrated into the landscape of the planet Mustafar in the 2005 film Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith. The Rifugio Sapienza is near the site of a cable car station which had previously been destroyed in the 1983 eruption; it has now been rebuilt. Following a rather silent, slow and non-destructive lava outflow on the upper southeastern flank between September 2004 and March 2005, intense eruptions occurred at the Southeast Crater in July–December 2006. These were followed by four episodes of lava fountaining, again at the Southeast Crater, on 29 March 11 April, 29 April and 7 May 2007. Ash emissions and Strombolian explosions started from a vent on the eastern side of the Southeast Crater in mid-August 2007.</p><br>
<p>On 4 September 2007 a spectacular episode of lava fountaining occurred from the new vent on the east side of the Southeast Crater, also producing a plume of ash and scoriae which fell over the east flank of the volcano. A lava flow travelled about 4.5 km into the uninhabited Valle del Bove. This eruption was visible far into the plains of Sicily, ending the following morning between the hours of 5 to 7 a.m. local time. Catania-Fontanarossa Airport shut down operations during the night for safety precautions.</p><br>
<p>An eruption on the morning of 13 May 2008, immediately to the east of Etna&#39;s summit craters was accompanied by a swarm of more than 200 earthquakes and significant ground deformation in the summit area. The eruption continued at a slowly diminishing rate for 417 days, until 6 July 2009, making this the longest flank eruption of Etna since the 1991–1993 eruption that lasted 473 days. Previous eruptions, in 2001, 2002–2003, and 2004–2005 had lasted 3 weeks, 3 months, and 6 months, respectively. Lava flows advanced 6.5 km during the first few days of this eruption but thereafter stagnated at much minor distances from the vents; during the last months of the eruption lava rarely advanced more than 1 km downslope.</p><br>
<p>Through January 2011 to February 2012, the summit craters of Etna were the site of intense activity. Frequent eruptions and ash columns forced the authorities to shut down the Catania airport on several occasions.</p><br>
<p>The July 2011 episode also endangered the Sapienza Refuge, the main tourist hub on the volcano, but the lava flow was successfully diverted. In 2014, a flank eruption started involving lava flows and strombolian eruptions. This was the first flank eruption since 2008–09</p><br>
<p>On 3 December 2015, an eruption occurred which climaxed between 03:20 and 04:10 local time. The Voragine crater exhibited a lava fountain which reached 1 km in height, with an ash plume which reached 3 km in height. The activity continued on the following days, with an ash plume that reached 7 km in height that forced Catania airport to shut down for a few hours. Volcanic gas emissions from this volcano are measured by a Multi-Component Gas Analyzer System, which detects pre-eruptive degassing of rising magmas, improving prediction of volcanic activity.</p><br>
<p>An eruption on 16 March 2017 injured 10 people, including a BBC News television crew, after magma exploded upon contact with snow.</p><br>
<h4>=Volcanic explosivity index of recent eruptions=</h4><br>
<p>The Global Volcanism Program has assigned a volcanic explosivity index (VEI) to all of Mount Etna&#39;s eruptions since January 1955.</p><br>
<h4>Smoke rings</h4><br>
<p>In the 1970s Etna erupted smoke rings, one of the first captured events of this type, which are extremely rare. This happened again in 2000.</p><br>
<p>Video footage of 8 June 2000 event was captured by naturalist filmmaker Geoff Mackley.</p><br>
<p>Another event occurred on 11 April 2013.</p><br>
<h2>Geopolitical oddity</h2><br>
<p>The borders of ten municipalities (Adrano, Biancavilla, Belpasso, Bronte (from two sides), Castiglione di Sicilia, Maletto, Nicolosi, Randazzo, Sant&#39;Alfio, Zafferana Etnea) meet on the summit of Mount Etna, making this point one of elevenfold complexity, and thus evidently the most complicated geopolitical multi-point anywhere north of the South Pole.</p><br>
<h2>Facilities</h2><br>
<p>Etna is one of Sicily&#39;s main tourist attractions, with thousands of visitors every year. The most common route is through the road leading to Sapienza Refuge ski area, lying at the south of the crater at elevation of 1910 m. From the Refuge, a cableway runs uphill to an elevation of 2500 m, from where the crater area at 2920 m is accessible.</p><br>
<p>Ferrovia Circumetnea – Round-Etna railway – is a narrow-gauge railway constructed between 1889 and 1895. It runs around the volcano in a 110-km long semi-circle starting in Catania and ending in Riposto 28 km north of Catania.</p><br>
<p>There are two ski resorts on Etna: one at the Sapienza Refuge, with a chairlift and three ski lifts, and a smaller one on the north, at Piano Provenzana near Linguaglossa, with three lifts and a chairlift.</p><br>
<p>Sapienza Refuge was the finish of Stage 9 of the 2011 Giro d&#39;Italia and Stage 4 of the 2017 Giro.</p><br>
<p>Lake Tanganyika is an African Great Lake. It is the second oldest freshwater lake in the world, second largest by volume, and the second deepest, in all cases after Lake Baikal in Siberia; it is also the world&#39;s longest freshwater lake. The lake is divided among four countries – Tanzania, Democratic Republic of the Congo , Burundi, and Zambia, with Tanzania  and DRC  possessing the majority of the lake. The water flows into the Congo River system and ultimately into the Atlantic Ocean.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>The name apparently refers to "Tanganika, the great lake spreading out like a plain, or plain-like lake."</p><br>
<h2>Geography and geological history</h2><br>
<p>Lake Tanganyika is situated within the Albertine Rift, the western branch of the East African Rift, and is confined by the mountainous walls of the valley. It is the largest rift lake in Africa and the second largest lake by volume in the world. It is the deepest lake in Africa and holds the greatest volume of fresh water, accounting for 16% of the world&#39;s available fresh water. It extends for 676 km in a general north-south direction and averages 50 km in width. The lake covers 32,900 km&sup2, with a shoreline of 1,828 km, a mean depth of 570 m and a maximum depth of 1,470 m (in the northern basin). It holds an estimated 18,900 km3.</p><br>
<p>The catchment area of the lake is 231,000 km&sup2;. Two main rivers flow into the lake, as well as numerous smaller rivers and streams (whose lengths are limited by the steep mountains around the lake). There is one major outflow, the Lukuga River, which empties into the Congo River drainage.</p><br>
<p>The major river flowing into the lake is the Ruzizi River, formed about 10,000 years ago, which enters the north of the lake from Lake Kivu. The Malagarasi River, which is Tanzania&#39;s second largest river, enters the east side of Lake Tanganyika. The Malagarasi is older than Lake Tanganyika and, before the lake was formed, directly drained into the Congo River.</p><br>
<p>The lake has a complex history of changing flow patterns, due to its high altitude, great depth, slow rate of refill and mountainous location in a turbulently volcanic area that has undergone climate changes. Apparently it has rarely in the past had an outflow to the sea. It has been described as practically endorheic for this reason. The lake&#39;s connection to the sea is dependent on a high water level allowing water to overflow out of the lake through the Lukunga into the Congo.</p><br>
<p>Due to the lakes tropical location, it has a high rate of evaporation. Thus it depends on a high inflow through the Ruzizi out of Lake Kivu to keep the lake high enough to overflow. This outflow is apparently not more than 12,000 years old, and resulted from lava flows blocking and diverting the Kivu basins previous outflow into Lake Edward and then the Nile system, and diverting it to Lake Tanganyika. Signs of ancient shorelines indicate that at times Tanganyika may have been up to 300 m lower than its present surface level, with no outlet to the sea. Even its current outlet is intermittent and thus may not have been operating when first visited by Western explorers in 1858.</p><br>
<p>The lake may also have at times had different inflows and outflows: inward flows from a higher Lake Rukwa, access to Lake Malawi and an exit route to the Nile have all been proposed to have existed at some point in the lake&#39;s history.</p><br>
<p>Lake Tanganyika is an ancient lake. Its three basins, which in periods with much lower water levels were separate lakes, are of different ages. The central began to form 9—12 million years ago (mya), the northern 7—8 mya and the southern 2—4 mya.</p><br>
<h3>Islands</h3><br>
<p>There are several islands in Lake Tanganyika. The most important of them are</p><br>
<p>Kavala Island (The Democratic Republic of the Congo)</p><br>
<p>Mamba-Kayenda Islands (The Democratic Republic of the Congo)</p><br>
<p>Milima Island (The Democratic Republic of the Congo)</p><br>
<p>Kibishie Island (The Democratic Republic of the Congo)</p><br>
<p>Mutondwe Island ( Zambia)</p><br>
<p>Kumbula Island ( Zambia)</p><br>
<h2>Water characteristics</h2><br>
<p>The lake&#39;s water is alkaline with a pH of around 9 at depths of 0-100 m. Below this it is around 8.7, gradually decreasing to 8.3—8.5 in the deepest parts of Tanganyika. A similar pattern can be seen in the electric conductivity, ranging from about 670 μS/cm in the upper part to 690 μS/cm in the deepest.</p><br>
<p>Surface temperatures generally range from about 24 &deg;C in the southern part of the lake in early August to 28 - in the late rainy season in March—April. At depths greater than 400 m the temperature is very stable at 23.1 -.</p><br>
<p>The lake is stratified and seasonal mixing generally does not extend beyond depths of 150 m. As a consequence of the stratification, the deep sections contain "fossil water". This also means that there is no oxygen (it is anoxic) in the deeper parts, essentially limiting fish and other aerobic organisms to the upper part. There are some geographical variations in this limit, but it is typically at depths of around 100 m in the northern part of the lake and 240-250 m in the south. The oxygen-devoid deepest sections contain high levels of toxic hydrogen sulphide and are essentially lifeless, except for bacteria.</p><br>
<h2>Biology</h2><br>
<h3>Reptiles</h3><br>
<p>Lake Tanganyika and associated wetlands are home to Nile crocodiles (including famous giant Gustave), Zambian hinged terrapins, serrated hinged terrapins and pan hinged terrapins (last species not in the lake itself, but in adjacent lagoons). The Storm&#39;s water cobra, a threatened subspecies of banded water cobra that feeds mainly on fish, is only found in Lake Tanganyika where it prefers rocky shores.</p><br>
<h3>Cichlid fish</h3><br>
<p>The lake holds at least 250 species of cichlid fish and undescribed species remain. Almost all (98%) of the Tanganyika cichlids are endemic to the lake and it is thus an important biological resource for the study of speciation in evolution. The cichlids of the African Great Lakes, including Tanganyika, represent the most diverse extent of adaptive radiation in vertebrates.</p><br>
<p>Although Tanganyika has far fewer cichlid species than Lake Malawi and Victoria which both have experienced relatively recent explosive species radiations (resulting in many closely related species), its cichlids are the most morphologically and genetically diverse. This is linked to the high age of Tanganyika, as it is far older than the other lakes. Tanganyika has the largest number of endemic cichlid genera of all African lakes. All Tanganyika cichlids are in the subfamily Pseudocrenilabrinae. Of the 10 tribes in this subfamily, half are largely or entirely restricted to the lake (Cyprichromini, Ectodini, Lamprologini, Limnochromini and Tropheini) and another three have species in the lake (Haplochromine, Tilapiini and Tylochromini). Others have proposed splitting the Tanganyika cichlids into as many as 12—16 tribes (in addition to previous mentioned, Bathybatini, Benthochromini, Boulengerochromini, Cyphotilapiini, Eretmodini, Greenwoodochromini, Perissodini and Trematocarini).</p><br>
<p>Most Tanganyika cichlids live along the shoreline down to a depth of 100 m, but some deep-water species regularly descend to 200 m. Trematocara species have exceptionally been found at more than 300 m, which is deeper than any other cichlid in the world. Some of the deep-water cichlids (e.g., Bathybates, Gnathochromis, Hemibates and Xenochromis) have been caught in places virtually devoid of oxygen, but how they are able to survive there is unclear. No Tanganyika cichlids are truly pelagic and offshore, except for some of the piscivorous Bathybates. Among the endemic species are two of the world&#39;s smallest cichlids, Neolamprologus multifasciatus and N. similis (both shell dwellers) at up to 4-5 cm, and one of the largest, the giant cichlid (Boulengerochromis microlepis) at up to 90 cm.</p><br>
<p>Many cichlids from Lake Tanganyika, such as species from the genera Altolamprologus, Cyprichromis, Eretmodus, Julidochromis, Lamprologus, Neolamprologus, Tropheus and Xenotilapia, are popular aquarium fish due to their bright colors and patterns, and interesting behaviors. Recreating a Lake Tanganyika biotope to host those cichlids in a habitat similar to their natural environment is also popular in the aquarium hobby.</p><br>
<h3>Other fish</h3><br>
<p>Lake Tanganyika is home to more than 80 species of non-cichlid fish and about 60% of these are endemic.</p><br>
<p>The open waters of the pelagic zone are dominated by four non-cichlid species: Two species of "Tanganyika sardine" (Limnothrissa miodon and Stolothrissa tanganicae ) form the largest biomass of fish in this zone, and they are important prey for the forktail lates (Lates microlepis) and sleek lates (L. stappersii). Two additional lates are found in the lake, the Tanganyika lates (L. angustifrons) and bigeye lates (L. mariae), but both these are primarily benthic hunters, although they also may move into open waters. The four lates, all endemic to Tanganyika, have been overfished and larger individuals are rare today.</p><br>
<p>Among the more unusual fish in the lake are the endemic, facultatively brood parasitic "cuckoo catfish", including at least Synodontis grandiops and S. multipunctatus. Although not endemic on a genus level, six species of Chrysichthys catfish are only found in the Tanganyika basin where they live both in shallow and relatively deep waters; Although other African Great Lakes have Synodontis catfish, endemic catfish genera and Mastacembelus spiny eels, the relatively high diversity is unique to Tanganyika, which likely is related to its old age.</p><br>
<p>Among the non-endemic fish, some are widespread African species but several are only shared with the Malagarasi and Congo River basins, such as the Congo bichir (Polypterus congicus), goliath tigerfish (Hydrocynus goliath), Citharinus citharus, six-banded distichodus (Distichodus sexfasciatus) and mbu puffer (Tetraodon mbu).</p><br>
<h3>Molluscs and crustaceans</h3><br>
<p>A total of 68 freshwater snail species (45 endemic) and 15 bivalve species (8 endemic) are known from the lake. Many of the snails are unusual for species living in freshwater in having noticeably thickened shells and/or distinct sculpture, features more commonly seen in marine snails. They are referred to as thallasoids, which can be translated to "marine-like". All the Tanganyika thallasoids, which are part of Prosobranchia, are endemic to the lake. Initially they were believed to be related to similar marine snails, but they are now known to be unrelated. Their appearance is now believed to be the result of the highly diverse habitats in Lake Tanganyika and evolutionary pressure from snail-eating fish and, in particular, Platythelphusa crabs. A total of 17 freshwater snail genera are endemic to the lake, such as Hirthia, Lavigeria, Paramelania, Reymondia, Spekia, Stanleya, Tanganyicia and Tiphobia. There are about 30 species of non-thallasoid snails in the lake, but only five of these are endemic, including Ferrissia tanganyicensis and Neothauma tanganyicense. The latter is the largest Tanganyika snail and its shell is often used by small shell-dwelling cichlids.</p><br>
<p>Crustaceans are also highly diverse in Tanganyika with more than 200 species, of which more than half are endemic. at least 11 species of small atyid shrimp (Atyella, Caridella and Limnocaridina), an endemic palaemonid shrimp (Macrobrachium moorei), at least 23 endemic ostracods and several copepods.</p><br>
<p>Among Rift Valley lakes, Lake Tanganyika far surpasses all others in terms of crustacean and freshwater snail richness (both in total number of species and number of endemics). For example, the only other Rift Valley lake with endemic freshwater crabs is Lake Kivu with two species.</p><br>
<h3>Other invertebrates</h3><br>
<p>The diversity of other invertebrate groups in Lake Tanganyika is often not well-known, but there are at least 20 described species of leeches (12 endemics), 9 sponges (7 endemic), 6 bryozoa (2 endemic), 11 flatworms (7 endemic), 20 nematodes (7 endemic), 28 annelids (17 endemic) and the small hydrozoan jellyfish Limnocnida tanganyicae.</p><br>
<h2>Industry</h2><br>
<p>It is estimated that 25–40% of the protein in the diet of the approximately one million people living around the lake comes from lake fish. Currently, there are around 100,000 people directly involved in the fisheries operating from almost 800 sites. The lake is also vital to the estimated 10 million people living in the greater basin.</p><br>
<p>Lake Tanganyika fish can be found exported throughout East Africa. Commercial fishing began in the mid-1950s and has had an extremely heavy impact on the pelagic fish species; in 1995 the total catch was around 180,000 tonnes. Former industrial fisheries, which boomed in the 1980s, have subsequently collapsed.</p><br>
<h2>Transport</h2><br>
<p>Two ferries carry passengers and cargo along the eastern shore of the lake: between Kigoma and Mpulungu and between Kigoma and Bujumbura.</p><br>
<p>The port town of Kigoma is the railhead for the railway from Dar es Salaam in Tanzania.</p><br>
<p>The port town of Kalemie (previously named Albertville) is the railhead for the D.R. Congo rail network.</p><br>
<p>The port town of Mpulungu is a proposed railhead for Zambia.</p><br>
<p>On Dec. 12, 2014, the ferry MV Mutambala capsized on Lake Tanganyika, and more than 120 lives were lost.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>It is thought that early Homo Sapiens was making an impact on the region already during the stone age. The time period of the Middle Stone Age to Late Stone Age is described as an age of advanced hunter-gatherers. It is believed they would have caused megafaunal extinctions.</p><br>
<p>There are many methods in which the native people of the area were fishing. Most of them included using a lantern as a lure for fish that are attracted to light. There were three basic forms. One called Lusenga which is a wide net used by one person from a canoe. The second one is using a lift net. This was done by dropping a net deep below the boat using two parallel canoes and then simultaneously pulling it up. The third is called Chiromila which consisted of three canoes. One canoe was stationary with a lantern while another canoe holds one end of the net and the other circles the stationary one to meet up with the net.</p><br>
<p>The first known Westerners to find the lake were the British explorers Richard Burton and John Speke, in 1858. They located it while searching for the source of the Nile River. Speke continued and found the actual source, Lake Victoria. Later David Livingstone passed by the lake. He noted the name "Liemba" for its southern part, a word probably from the Fipa language, and in 1927 this was chosen as the new name for the conquered German First World War ship Graf von Götzen which is still serving the lake up to the present time.</p><br>
<h3>World War I</h3><br>
<p>The lake was the scene of two celebrated battles during World War I.</p><br>
<p>With the aid of the Graf Goetzen (named after Count Gustav Adolf Graf von Götzen, the former governor of German East Africa), the Germans had complete control of the lake in the early stages of the war. The ship was used both to ferry cargo and personnel across the lake, and as a base from which to launch surprise attacks on Allied troops.</p><br>
<p>It therefore became essential for the Allied forces to gain control of the lake themselves. Under the command of Lieutenant Commander Geoffrey Spicer-Simson the British Royal Navy achieved the monumental task of bringing two armed motor boats HMS Mimi and HMS Toutou from England to the lake by rail, road and river to Albertville (since renamed Kalemie in 1971) on the western shore of Lake Tanganyika. The two boats waited until December 1915, and mounted a surprise attack on the Germans, with the capture of the gunboat Kingani. Another German vessel, the Hedwig, was sunk in February 1916, leaving the Götzen as the only German vessel remaining to control the lake.</p><br>
<p>As a result of their strengthened position on the lake, the Allies started advancing towards Kigoma by land, and the Belgians established an airbase on the western shore at Albertville. It was from there, in June 1916, that they launched a bombing raid on German positions in and around Kigoma. It is unclear whether or not the Götzen was hit (the Belgians claimed to have hit it but the Germans denied this), but German morale suffered and the ship was subsequently stripped of its gun since it was needed elsewhere.</p><br>
<p>The war on the lake had reached a stalemate by this stage, with both sides refusing to mount attacks. However, the war on land was progressing, largely to the advantage of the Allies, who cut off the railway link in July 1916 and threatened to isolate Kigoma completely. This led the German commander, Gustav Zimmer, to abandon the town and head south. In order to avoid his prize ship falling into Allied hands, Zimmer scuttled the vessel on July 26, 1916. The vessel was later raised in 1924 and renamed MV Liemba (see transport).</p><br>
<h3>Che Guevara</h3><br>
<p>In 1965 Argentinian revolutionary Che Guevara used the western shores of Lake Tanganyika as a training camp for guerrilla forces in the Congo. From his camp, Che and his forces attempted to overthrow the government, but ended up pulling out in less than a year since the National Security Agency (NSA) had been monitoring him the entire time and aided government forces in ambushing his guerrillas.</p><br>
<h3>Recent history</h3><br>
<p>In 1992 Lake Tanganyika featured in the British TV documentary series Pole to Pole. The BBC documentarian Michael Palin stayed on board the MV Liemba and travelled across the lake.</p><br>
<p>Since 2004 the lake has been the focus of a massive Water and Nature Initiative by the IUCN. The project is scheduled to take five years at a total cost of US$27 million. The initiative is attempting to monitor the resources and state of the lake, set common criteria for acceptable level of sediments, pollution, and water quality in general, and design and establish a lake basin management authority.</p><br>
<h3>Effects of global warming</h3><br>
<p>Because of increasing global temperature there is a direct correlation to lower productivity in Lake Tanganyika. Southern winds create upwells of deep nutrient-rich water on the southern end of the lake. This happens during the cooler months (May to September). These nutrients that are in deep water are vital in maintaining the aquatic food web. The southernly winds are slowing down which limits the ability for the mixing of nutrients. This is correlating with less productivity in the lake.</p><br>
<p>Isla de los Estados  is an Argentine island that lies 29 km off the eastern extremity of the Argentine portion of Tierra del Fuego, from which it is separated by the Le Maire Strait. It was named after the Netherlands States-General, and its original Dutch name was identical to that of the New York borough of Staten Island.</p><br>
<p>The island is administratively part of the Argentinian province of Tierra del Fuego, and of the department and city of Ushuaia. It has been declared an "Ecological, Historic, and Tourist Provincial Reserve" ("Reserva provincial ecológica, histórica y turística"), with access limited to tours from Ushuaia.</p><br>
<p>The only settlement is the Puerto Parry Naval Station, located in a deep and narrow fjord on the northern coast of the island. The naval station, established in 1978, is manned by a team of four marines on a 45-day rotation. They monitor environmental conservation and ship movements, and provide emergency assistance.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Prior to European arrival, the islands were regularly visited by the Haush who inhabited the Mitre Peninsula.</p><br>
<p>The first European to discover the island was the Spanish naval captain Francisco de Hoces, when in 1526 the ship San Lesmes, from the Spanish expedition of Loaísa, separated from the rest in a storm, being displaced to the south parallel 55, becoming the discoverer of the great island east of Tierra del Fuego, which would later be called the Island of the States or Staten Island.</p><br>
<p>Almost a century after the Spaniards, the Dutch explorers Jacob le Maire and Willem Schouten on December 25, 1615, who named the island Staten Landt, or "Country of the Lords of the State." Le Maire and Schouten sailed their ship, Eendracht, through a route south of the Straits of Magellan, a route now called the Le Maire Strait. To his left Le Maire noted the land mass which he called Staten Landt; he theorized it was perhaps a portion of the great Southern Continent. (The first European name for New Zealand was Staten Landt, the name given to it by the Dutch explorer Abel Tasman, who in 1642 became the first European to see the islands. Tasman also assumed it was part of the Southern Continent later known as Antarctica.)</p><br>
<p>Dutch captain Hendrik Brouwer recorded sighting the island in 1643. No Europeans are known to have settled on the island for more than 200 years. In 1862 Argentine pilot Luis Piedrabuena established a shelter near Port Cook, and built a small seal oil extraction facility on the island.</p><br>
<p>On New Year&#39;s Day, 1775, Captain James Cook named what is now "Puerto Año Nuevo", "New Years Island". Seal hunters established a short-lived factory there (1786-1787), but abandoned it after Duke of York wrecked there on 11 September 1787 while bringing supplies.</p><br>
<p>The island is also referenced in Richard Henry Dana Jr.&#39;s book "Two Years Before the Mast" as the first land they see after leaving San Diego. He describes the land as "... bare, broken, and girt with rocks and ice, with here and there, between rocks and broken hillocks, a little stunted vegetation of shrubs..."</p><br>
<p>More than twenty years later, the San Juan del Salvamento Lighthouse was inaugurated on May 25, 1884, by Comodoro Augusto Lasserre. It operated until September 1900. The lighthouse, better known as Faro del fin del mundo ("Lighthouse at the end of the world"), is said to have inspired Jules Verne&#39;s novel The Lighthouse at the End of the World (1905). A military prison was based on the island from 1899 to 1902. It had to be moved to Tierra del Fuego after being compromised by the strong winds.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The island is approximately 65 km long east-west, and 15 km wide, with an area of 534 km&sup2;. The island is deeply indented by bays. Its highest point is 823 m, and is considered to be the last prominence of the Andes mountain range. It receives around 2,000 mm of rain per year.</p><br>
<p>The island is surrounded by minor islands and rocks, the largest being Observatorio island 6.5 km north, with an area of 4 km&sup2;. At the eastern end of the island is Cape St John, a landmark for ships sailing around the island in order to avoid the currents and tides of the Le Maire Strait to the west.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>The island has a cold and humid climate and is characterized by rapid and unpredictable changes in the weather from day to day. Under the Köppen climate classification, despite the vegetation, it would be classified as a mild tundra climate (ET), a cold climate with a mean temperature in the warmest month below 10 &deg;C with abundant precipitation year-round.</p><br>
<p>The climate of the island is strongly influenced by the subpolar low pressure system which develops around the Antarctic Circle and the surrounding oceans. Being located between the semi–permanent high pressure cell and the subpolar low (which does not change in intensity through the year and have little seasonal variation), the island is exposed to westerlies throughout the year.</p><br>
<p>Temperatures are low year round but without extreme minimum temperatures. The mean temperature in summer is 8.3 &deg;C with mean extremes of 16.2 &deg;C and 3.0 &deg;C while in winter, the mean temperature is 3.3 &deg;C with mean extremes of 7.7 &deg;C and -4 &deg;C. Mean temperatures are lower in Tierra del Fuego but due to the moderating influence of the ocean, extreme minimum temperatures are higher than in Tierra del Fuego. Coastal areas have average temperatures above 0 &deg;C in the coldest month while higher altitude locations may average below 0 &deg;C.</p><br>
<p>Though no reliable records are available, it is estimated that the island averages around 2,000 mm of precipitation per year. However, owing to its relief, precipitation is highly variable across the island. In the eastern parts of the island, it averages 1,400 mm based on 4 years of data. Precipitation occurs frequently on the island, averaging 252 days with precipitation. June is the wettest month while October is the driest. Thunderstorms are very rare. Snow frequently falls during the winter months, averaging 33 days although they can fall during Autumn and Spring. The island receives high cloud cover throughout the year, with 74% of the days being cloudy. June is the cloudiest month while October is the least cloudiest month. Fog is uncommon, averaging only 16 days per year. Similar to the rest of Patagonia, the island is exposed to strong westerly winds. These winds often carry moisture with them, leading to frequent storms. Average wind speeds range from a high of 37 km/h in August to a low of 24 km/h in December.</p><br>
<h2>Flora and fauna</h2><br>
<p>Isla de los Estados is covered with dense low forests of Nothofagus southern beech. The animal life is composed mainly of penguins, orcas, seals, seagulls and cormorants, as well as the human-introduced deer and goats. The island is the location of one of the more southerly Atlantic breeding colonies of the Magellanic penguin.C. Michael Hogan (2008)</p><br>
<p>As early as the last part of the 18th century, Isla de los Estados was used as a seal harvesting location.</p><br>
<p>Chalcis  or Chalkida  is the chief town of the island of Euboea in Greece, situated on the Euripus Strait at its narrowest point. The name is preserved from antiquity and is derived from the Greek χαλκός , though there is no trace of any mines in the area. In the late Middle Ages, it was known as Negropont, an Italian name that has also been applied to the entire island of Euboea.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Ancient Greece</h3><br>
<p>The earliest recorded mention of Chalcis is in the Iliad, where it is mentioned in the same line as its rival Eretria. It is also documented that the ships set for the Trojan War gathered at Aulis, the south bank of the strait nearby the city. Chamber tombs at Trypa and Vromousa dated to the Mycenaean period were excavated by Papavasiliou in 1910. In the 8th and 7th centuries BC, colonists from Chalcis founded thirty townships on the peninsula of Chalcidice and several important cities in Magna Graecia, such as Naxos, Rhegion and Cumae. Its mineral produce, metal-work, purple and pottery not only found markets among these settlements, but were distributed over the Mediterranean in the ships of Corinth and Samos.</p><br>
<p>With the help of these allies, Chalcis engaged the rival league of its neighbour Eretria in the so-called Lelantine War, by which it acquired the best agricultural district of Euboea and became the chief city of the island. Early in the 6th century BC, its prosperity was broken by a disastrous war with the Athenians, who expelled the ruling aristocracy and settled a cleruchy on the site. Chalcis subsequently became a member of both the Delian Leagues.</p><br>
<p>Chalkis has had a Greco-Jewish presence since antiquity, which is sometimes claimed to have been continuous and to thus form Europe&#39;s oldest Jewish community, although there is no evidence of it through the early Middle Ages.</p><br>
<p>In the Hellenistic period, it gained importance as a fortress by which the Macedonian rulers controlled central Greece. It was used by kings Antiochus III of Syria (192 BC) and Mithradates VI of Pontus (88 BC) as a base for invading Greece.</p><br>
<p>Under Roman rule, Chalcis retained a measure of commercial prosperity within the province of Achaea (the southern half of Greece).</p><br>
<h3>Middle Ages and early Modern period</h3><br>
<p>It is recorded as a city in the 6th-century Synecdemus and mentioned by the contemporary historian Procopius of Caesarea, who recorded that a movable bridge linked the two shores of the strait. In Byzantine times, Chalcis was usually called Euripos, a name also applied to the entire island of Euboea, although the ancient name survived in administrative and ecclesiastical usage until the 9th century; alternatively, it is possible that the name was given anew to a settlement that was founded in the 9th century in the location of the ancient city, after the latter had been abandoned in the early Middle Ages. The town survived an Arab naval raid in the 880s and its bishop is attested in the 869–70 Church council held at Constantinople.</p><br>
<p>By the 12th century, the town featured a Venetian trading station, being attacked by the Venetian fleet in 1171 and eventually seized by Venice in 1209, in the aftermath of the Fourth Crusade.</p><br>
<p>For Westerners, its common name was Negropont or Negroponte. This name comes indirectly from the Greek name of the Euripus Strait: the phrase στὸν Εὔριπον to Evripos, was rebracketed as στὸ Νεὔριπον to Nevripos, and became Negroponte in Italian by folk etymology, the ponte bridge being interpreted as the bridge of Chalcis to Boeotia.</p><br>
<p>The town was a condominium between Venice and the Veronese barons of the rest of Euboea, known as the "triarchs", who resided there. Chalcis or Negroponte became a Latin Church diocese, see below.</p><br>
<p>A large hoard of late medieval jewellery dating from Venetian times was found in Chalcis Castle in the nineteenth century and is now in the British Museum. The synagogue dated to around 1400.</p><br>
<p>Negroponte played a significant role in the history of Frankish Greece, and was attacked by the Principality of Achaea in the War of the Euboeote Succession (1257/8), the Catalan Company in 1317, the Turks in 1350/1, until it was finally captured by the Ottoman Empire after a long siege in 1470. That siege is the subject of the Rossini opera Maometto II. The Ottomans made it the seat of the Admiral of the Archipelago (the Aegean Islands). In 1688, it was successfully held by the Ottomans against a strong Venetian attack.</p><br>
<h3>The modern town</h3><br>
<p>Chalkida became part of the newborn Greek state after the Greek War of Independence. The modern town received an impetus in its export trade from the establishment of railway connection with Athens and its port Piraeus in 1904. In the early 20th century it was composed of two parts—the old walled town at the bridge over the Euripus, where a number of Turkish families continued to live until the late 19th century, and a sizeable Jewish community lived until World War II, and the more modern suburb that lies outside it, chiefly occupied by Greeks.</p><br>
<p>The old town, called the Castro (citadel), was surrounded by a full circuit of defense walls until they were completely razed for urban development around the start of the 20th century.</p><br>
<h2>Ecclesiastical history</h2><br>
<h3>Greek bishopric</h3><br>
<p>The Byzantine diocese of Chalkis was initially a suffragan of the Archdiocese of Corinth, but in the IXth century was transferred to the Metropolitan of Athens, remaining in the sway of the Patriarchate of Constantinople. It was also known as Euripo, like it&#39;s mentioned in the Byzantine imperial Notitia Episcopatuum since emperor Leo VI the Wise (886-912).</p><br>
<p>Several of its Greek bishops are recorded, but some disputed :</p><br>
<p>Constantinus, signed in 458 a letter by the bishops of Greece to Byzantine emperor Leo I the Thracian after the murder by Coptic mobs of patriarch Proterius of Alexandria.</p><br>
<p>Lequien list before him Anatolius (in 363), but he was probably bishop of Beroea in Syria Prima (now Aleppo).</p><br>
<p>next Lequien inserts, by benefit of doubt, Iohannes Damasceno, whom he also lists as bishop of Euroea (in Phoenicia) alias Evaria, in Phoenicia.</p><br>
<p>Teodorus and Teofilattus, successive (?) bishops of Euripus, participated in the 869–70 Church council held at Constantinople. viz. the Council of Constantinople of 879-880, both treating the fate of Patriarch Photios I of Constantinople.</p><br>
<h3>Latin crusader bishopric</h3><br>
<p>At the establishment of the crusader state Lordship of Negroponte, Chalcis or Negroponte (seat of the central one of its three triarchies) constituent baronies) became a Latin Church diocese, the first bishop being Theodorus, the Greek bishop of the see, who entered communion with the see of Rome, installed by papal legate.</p><br>
<p>On 8 february 1314, the Latin see was united in commendam (as an additional benefice) with the Latin Patriarchate of Constantinople, so that the exiled Patriarch, excluded from Constantinople itself since the Byzantine reconquest of the city, could have actual jurisdiction on Greek soil and exercise a direct role as head of the Latin clergy in what remained of Latin Greece.</p><br>
<h3>Titular Latin see</h3><br>
<p>The diocese was nominally restored (18the century?) Titular archbishopric of Chalcis (Latin) / Calcide (Curiate Italian), and as such had the following incumbents, of the then fitting Archiepiscopal (intermediary) rank with an episcopal (lower) exception at the apparent start:</p><br>
<p>Titular Bishop: Antonio Albergotti (1755.11.17 – ?) no actual prelature recorded</p><br>
<p>(Eastern Catholic?) Boghos Maroushian (1832.08.14 – 1838.04.03) as personal honor; next Archeparch (Archbishop) of Istanbul of the Armenians (Turkey) (1838.04.03 – death 1846.08.02)</p><br>
<p>Henri-Victor Altamayer, Dominican Order (O.P.) (1884.04.04 – 1887.11.24), as Latin Coadjutor Archbishop of Baghdad (Iraq) (1884.03.27 – 1887.11.24) and Apostolic Delegate (papal diplomatic envoy) to Mesopotamia, Kurdistan and Lesser Armenia (1884.03.27 – 1902.08.28?); later succeeded as Archbishop of Baghdad (Iraq) (1887.11.24 – 1902.08.28), emeritate as Titular Archbishop of Synnada (1902.08.28 – death 1930.11.13)</p><br>
<p>Pietro Facciotti (1897.04.19 – ?resigned ?1891.03.11 ?death 1913.04.20) as emeritate (and promotion); previously Titular Bishop of Abila (1879.02.28 – 1880.02.27) as Auxiliary Bishop of Diocese of Palestrina (Italy) (1879.02.28 – 1880.02.27), Bishop of Ferentino (Italy) (1880.02.27 – 1897.04.19)</p><br>
<p>Luís Antônio dos Santos (1890.06.26 – death 1891.03.11) as emeritate; previously Bishop of Ceará (Brazil) (1860.09.28 – 1881.03.13), Metropolitan Archbishop of São Salvador da Bahia (Brazil) (1881.03.13 – 1890.06.26)</p><br>
<p>Carlo Pietropaoli (1913.04.29 – death 1922.06.29) as papal diplomat: Apostolic Delegate to Venezuela (1913.04.29 – 1915), Apostolic Internuncio to Venezuela (1915 – 1918) and on emeritate; previously Bishop of Trivento (Italy) (1897.03.30 – 1913.04.29)</p><br>
<p>Johannes Olaf Fallize (born Luxemburg) (1922.10.09 – 1933.10.23) as emeritate (promoted); previously Apostolic Prefect of Norway (Norway) (1887.02.06 – 1892.03.11), Titular Bishop of Elusa (1892.03.11 – 1922.10.09) as only (see promoted) Apostolic Vicar of Norway (Norway) (1892.03.11 – 1913.06.01), (see) restyled first Apostolic Vicar of Norway and Spitzbergen (Norway; now diocese of Oslo) (1913.06.01 – 1922.06.21).</p><br>
<p>In 1925 it was demoted as Titular bishopric of Chalcis (Latin) / Calcide (Italian) and in December 1933.12 renamed as Titular bishopric of Chalcis in Græcia (Latin) / Calcide di Grecia (Italian) / Chalciden(sis) in Græcia (Latin adjective). It is vacant as such since decades, having had a single incumbent of the now fitting Episcopal (lowest) rank :</p><br>
<p>Gallus Steiger, Missionary Benedictines (O.S.B.) (1933.12.11 – death 1966.11.26) as personal honor and (next) emeritate; was last Apostolic Prefect of Lindi (Tanzania) (1922.02.22 – 1927.12.15), (see) restyled only Abbot Ordinary of Territorial Abbey of Lindi (Tanzania) (1927.12.15 – 1931.12.23), (see) restyled first Abbot Ordinary of Territorial Abbey of Peramiho (Tanzania) (1931.12.23 – 1952.12.06).</p><br>
<h2>Main sights</h2><br>
<p>The church of Saint Paraskevi (the patron saint of the island) was the church of the Dominican Priory of Negroponte, one of the first two houses authorized for the Order of Preachers&#39; Province of Greece in 1249. Started about 1250, this is among the oldest examples of early Dominican architecture surviving, and is one of the only early Dominican churches to retain its original form until the present. The central arch over the iconostasis and the ceiling and walls of the south chapel are the best examples of Italian Gothic stone-carving in Greece. Images of the Dominican saints, Dominic and Peter Martyr, stand at the base of the central arch. The north chapel holds the tomb of the founder of the senatorial Lippamano family of Venice. Some of the column capitals are Byzantine.</p><br>
<h3>The bridges</h3><br>
<p>The town is now connected to the mainland Greece by two bridges, the "Sliding Bridge" in the west at the narrowest point of the Euripus Strait and a suspension bridge.</p><br>
<p>The Euripus Strait which separates the city and the island from the mainland was bridged in 411 BC with a wooden bridge. In the time of Justinian the fixed bridge was replaced with a movable structure. The Turks replaced this once again with a fixed bridge. In 1856, a wooden swing bridge was built; in 1896, an iron swing bridge, and in 1962, the existing "sliding bridge&quot the construction works of the 19th century destroyed the most part of the medieval castle built across the bridge. The Euripus Bridge or Chalcis Bridge, a cable-stayed suspension bridge opened in 1993, joins Chalcis to the mainland to the south.</p><br>
<p>A special tidal phenomenon takes place in the strait, as strong tidal currents reverse direction once every six hours, creating strong currents and maelstroms.</p><br>
<h2>Municipality</h2><br>
<p>The municipality Chalcis was formed at the 2011 local government reform by the merger of Chalcis city itself with four former municipalities, which also became municipal units :</p><br>
<p>Anthidona</p><br>
<p>Avlida</p><br>
<p>Lilantia</p><br>
<p>Nea Artaki</p><br>
<p>The municipality has an area of 424.766 km, the municipal unit 30.804 km.</p><br>
<h2>Transportation</h2><br>
<p>GR-44</p><br>
<p>GR-77</p><br>
<p>GR-1/E75 is south and west about 10 km from Chalcis in Boeotia.</p><br>
<p>In 2003, a bypass of Chalcis was opened from the southern part of the bridge to connect with GR-77, also with access to GR-44.</p><br>
<p>Chalcis is also the northern terminal of line 1 of Athens suburban railway (Proastiakos).</p><br>
<h2>Historical population</h2><br>
<h2>Notable residents</h2><br>
<p>Giovanni Maria Angiolello from Vicenza, Italy, 15th century.</p><br>
<p>Yiannis Anastasopoulos (1931–present), author</p><br>
<p>Aristotle (384–322 BC, ancient philosopher, lived in Chalcis the last year of his life (323–322 BC))</p><br>
<p>Sotiria Bellou (1921–1997), singer</p><br>
<p>Angelos Basinas (1976–present), professional footballer</p><br>
<p>Mordehai Frizis (1893–1940), military officer</p><br>
<p>Konstantinos Kallias (1901–2004), politician</p><br>
<p>Orestis Makris (1898–1975), actor and tenor</p><br>
<p>Dimitris Mytaras (1934–2017), painter</p><br>
<p>Georgios Papanikolaou (1883–1962), physician, Pap smear test founder</p><br>
<p>Nikos Skalkottas (1901–1949), composer</p><br>
<p>Giannis Skarimpas (Agia Efthymia, 1893–1984), author</p><br>
<h2>Sports teams</h2><br>
<p>Chalcis also has a water polo team named NC Chalkida, a football (soccer) team named Chalkida F.C., as well as a junior football team named Evoikos Chalkida.</p><br>
<p>The Chalkida football team merged with Lilas Vasilikou for a period of two years (2004–2006). The team was finally dissolved because of financial difficulties. Although there was a team created with the same name (AOX) it does not represent the glorious team of the past.</p><br>
<p>Chalcis also has a basketball team (AGEX), which previously played in the Greek A2 Basketball League. For a while, Chalkida hosts the basketball team Ikaros Chalkidas that played in the top Greek Basket League.</p><br>
<h2>Twin towns—Sister cities</h2><br>
<p>Chalcis is twinned with:</p><br>
<p>Wuhan</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>Chalcis has a mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification: Csa), closely bordering a semi-arid climate with hot, dry summers and mild, rainy winters.</p><br>
<p>Alderney  is the northernmost of the inhabited Channel Islands. It is part of the Bailiwick of Guernsey, a British Crown dependency. It is 3 mi long and 1+1/2 mi wide. The area is 3 square miles, making it the third-largest island of the Channel Islands, and the second largest in the Bailiwick. It is around 10 mi from the west of La Hague on the Cotentin Peninsula, Normandy, in France, 20 mi from the north-east of Guernsey and 60 mi from the south coast of Great Britain. It is the closest of the Channel Islands to both France and the United Kingdom. It is separated from Cap de la Hague by the dangerous Alderney Race .</p><br>
<p>As of April 2013, the island had a population of 1,903; natives are traditionally nicknamed vaques after the cows, or else lapins after the many rabbits seen in the island. Formally, they are known as Ridunians, from the Latin Riduna.</p><br>
<p>The only parish of Alderney is the parish of St Anne, which covers the whole island.</p><br>
<p>The main town, St Anne, historically known as La Ville ("The Town"), is often referred to as "St Annes" by visitors and incomers, but rarely by locals (who, in normal conversation, still most frequently refer to the area centred on Victoria Street simply as "Town"). The towns "High Street", which formerly had a small handful of shops, is now almost entirely residential, forming a T-junction with Victoria St at its highest point. The town area features an imposing church and an unevenly cobbled main street: Victoria Street (Rue Grosnez – the English name being adopted on the visit of Queen Victoria in 1854). There are a primary school, a secondary school, a post office, and hotels, as well as restaurants, banks and shops. Other settlements include Braye, Crabby, Longis, Mannez, La Banquage and Newtown.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Alderney shares its prehistory with the other islands in the Bailiwick of Guernsey, becoming an island in the Neolithic period as the waters of the Channel rose. Formerly rich in dolmens, like the other Channel Islands, Alderney with its heritage of megaliths has suffered through the large-scale military constructions of the 19th century and also by the Germans during the World War II occupation, who left the remains at Les Pourciaux unrecognisable as dolmens. A cist survives near Fort Tourgis, and Longis Common has remains of an Iron Age site. There are traces of Roman occupation including a fort, built in the late 300s, at 49&deg;43&prime;09&Prime;N latitude, 2&deg;10&prime;36&Prime;W longitude above the island&#39;s only natural harbour.</p><br>
<p>The etymology of the island&#39;s name is obscure. It is known in Latin as Riduna but as with the names of all the Channel Islands in the Roman period there is a degree of confusion. Riduna may be the original name of Tatihou, while Alderney is conjectured to be identified with Sarnia. Alderney/Aurigny is variously supposed to be a Germanic or Celtic name. It may be a corruption of Adreni or Alrene, which is probably derived from an Old Norse word meaning "island near the coast". Alternatively it may derive from three Norse elements: alda (swelling wave, roller), renna (strong current, race) and öy or -ey (island).</p><br>
<p>Alderney may be mentioned in Paul the Deacons Historia Langobardorum (I.6) as Evodia in which he discussed a certain dangerous whirlpool. The name Evodia may in turn originate from the seven Haemodae of uncertain identification in Plinys Natural History (IV 16 (30) or Pomponius Mela&#39;s Chronographia (III 6,54).</p><br>
<p>Along with the other Channel Islands, Alderney was annexed by the Duchy of Normandy in 933. In 1042 William the Bastard, Duke of Normandy (later William the Conqueror, King of the English) granted Alderney to the Abbey of Mont Saint-Michel. In 1057 the bishop of Coutances took back control of the island.</p><br>
<p>After 1204, when mainland Normandy was incorporated into the kingdom of France, Alderney remained loyal to the English monarch in his dignity of Duke of Normandy.</p><br>
<p>Henry VIII of England undertook fortification works, but these ceased in 1554. Essex Castle perpetuates the name of the Earl of Essex, who purchased the governorship of Alderney in 1591. Prior to the Earls execution for treason in 1601, he leased the island to William Chamberlain, and Alderney remained in the hands of the Chamberlain family until 1643. From 1612, a Judge was appointed to assist the Governors administration of Alderney, along with the Jurats. The function of the Judge was similar to that of the Bailiffs of Guernsey and Jersey, and continued until 1949.</p><br>
<p>During the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, Alderney was held by a Parliamentary garrison under Nicholas Ling, Lieutenant-Governor. Ling built Government House (now the Island Hall). The de Carterets of Jersey acquired the governorship, later passing it to Sir Edmund Andros of Guernsey, from whom the Guernsey family of Le Mesurier inherited it, thus establishing a hereditary line of governors that lasted until 1825.</p><br>
<p>Henry Le Mesurier prospered through privateering, and moved the harbour from Longis to Braye, building a jetty there in 1736. Warehouses and dwellings were built at Braye, and the export of cattle generated wealth for the economy. The Court House was built in 1770 and a school in 1790. A Methodist chapel was constructed in 1790, following John Wesley&#39;s visit in 1787. A telegraph tower was constructed above La Foulère in 1811, enabling signals to be relayed visually to Le Mât in Sark and on to Guernsey – early warning of attack during the Napoleonic Wars was of strategic importance. With the end of those wars privateering was ended and smuggling suppressed, leading to economic difficulties.</p><br>
<p>The last of the hereditary Governors, John Le Mesurier, resigned his patent to the Crown in 1825, and since then authority has been exercised by the States of Alderney, as amended by the constitutional settlement of 1948.</p><br>
<h3>Victorian era</h3><br>
<p>The British Government decided to undertake massive fortifications in the 19th century and to create a strategic harbour to deter attacks from France. These fortifications were presciently described by William Ewart Gladstone as "a monument of human folly, useless to us... but perhaps not absolutely useless to a possible enemy, with whom we may at some period have to deal and who may possibly be able to extract some profit in the way of shelter and accommodation from the ruins." An influx of English and Irish labourers, plus the sizeable British garrison stationed in the island, led to rapid Anglicisation. The harbour was never completed – the remaining breakwater (designed by James Walker) is one of the island&#39;s landmarks, and is longer than any breakwater in the UK.</p><br>
<p>Queen Victoria and Prince Albert visited Alderney on 9 August 1854. The Albert Memorial and the renaming of Rue Grosnez to Victoria Street commemorate this visit.</p><br>
<p>At the same time as the breakwater was being built in the 1850s, the island was fortified by a string of 13 forts, designed to protect the harbour of refuge. The accommodation quarters of several of the forts have been converted into apartments; two are now private homes; and one, Fort Clonque, at the end of a causeway that can be flooded at high tide, belongs to the Landmark Trust and can be rented for comfortable self-catering holidays for up to 13 people. Scenes from the film Seagulls Over Sorrento were shot at Fort Clonque in 1953.</p><br>
<p>Some of the forts are now in varying stages of dereliction, the most ruined being Les Hommeaux Florains, perched on outlying rocks, its access causeway and bridge having been swept away long ago. Houmet Herbé resembles a Crusader castle with its squat round towers. Like many of the forts, it included such apparently anachronistic features as a drawbridge and machicolation, which were still common in military architecture of the period.</p><br>
<h3>Second World War</h3><br>
<p>In June 1940 the entire population of Alderney, about 1,500 residents, were evacuated. Most went on the official evacuation boats sent from mainland Britain. Some, however, decided to make their own way, mostly via Guernsey, but due to the impending occupation many found themselves unable to leave and were forced to stay on Guernsey for the duration of the war. A few Alderney people elected not to leave Alderney with the general evacuation. However, boats from Guernsey came and collected them before the German Army arrived, on the basis that it was best for their personal safety. During the Second World War, the Channel Islands were the only part of the British Isles that was occupied by Germany, although other parts of the Empire were occupied by the Axis powers.</p><br>
<p>The Germans arrived to a deserted island, and began to follow their orders to fortify Alderney as part of Hitler&#39;s Atlantic Wall. In January 1942 they built four camps in Alderney: two work camps, Lager Helgoland and Lager Borkum, and two concentration camps, Lager Sylt and Lager Norderney. They were built by the Nazi Organisation Todt (OT) to house the labour used to build fortifications including bunkers, gun emplacements, tunnels, air-raid shelters and other concrete and field fortifications. Lager Norderney, containing Russian and Polish POWs, and the Lager Sylt camp holding Jewish slave labourers, were transferred to SS administration in March 1943 under the control of Hauptsturmführer Maximilian List. There are 397 graves in Alderney, which when added to the men who died in ships, takes the total to over 700 out of a total inmate population of 6,000 who lost their lives before the camps were closed and the remaining inmates transferred to France in 1944. On the return to their island, Alderney evacuees had little or no knowledge of the crimes committed on their island during the occupation, because by December 1945, the first date civilians could return home, all the slave labourers had been sent away and the majority of the German troops left behind were not senior staff. Evidence, however, was all over the island, with concrete fortifications and graveyards for the prisoners kept there during the occupation.</p><br>
<p>The Royal Navy blockaded the islands from time to time, particularly following the liberation of Normandy in 1944. Intense negotiations resulted in some Red Cross humanitarian aid, but there was considerable hunger and privation during the five years of German occupation, particularly in the final months when the Germans themselves were close to starvation. The Germans surrendered Alderney on 16 May 1945, eight days after the Allies formally accepted the unconditional surrender of the armed forces of Nazi Germany and the end of Adolf Hitler&#39;s Third Reich, and seven days after the liberation of Guernsey and Jersey. 2,332 German prisoners of war were removed from Alderney on 20 May 1945, leaving 500 Germans to undertake clearing up operations under British military supervision. The people of Alderney could not start returning until December 1945 due to the huge cleanup operation needed simply to make the island safe for civilians. When the islanders returned home they were shocked to see the state of the island, with many houses completely derelict: the Germans had burned anything wooden, including front doors, for fuel. Archival and object evidence of the general evacuation in 1940 and the subsequent occupation of Alderney can be found in the Alderney Society Museum.</p><br>
<p>A series of tunnels also remain in place on Alderney, constructed by forced labour. These are in varying degrees of decay, being left open to the public and the elements.</p><br>
<h3>Since 1945</h3><br>
<p>For two years after the end of the war, Alderney was operated as a communal farm. Craftsmen were paid by their employers, while others were paid by the local government out of the profit from the sales of farm produce. Remaining profits were put aside to repay the British Government for repairing and rebuilding the island. The local people resented being unable to control their own land; this led to the United Kingdom Home Office setting up an enquiry that led to the "Government of Alderney Law 1948", which came into force on 1 January 1949. The law organised the construction and election of the States of Alderney and the justice system; and, for the first time in Alderney, the imposition of taxes. The legislature and judiciary were separated. The position of Judge, who had headed the islands government since the resignation of the last Governor in 1825, was abolished, and the Jurats were removed from their legislative function. Because of the islands small population, it was believed that the island could not be self-sufficient in running the airport and the harbour, or providing services that would match those of the UK. Taxes were therefore collected into the general Bailiwick of Guernsey revenue funds at the same rate as in Guernsey, and administered by the States of Guernsey. Guernsey became responsible for providing many government functions and services.</p><br>
<p>The 20th century saw much change in Alderney, from the building of the airport in the late 1930s to the death of the last speakers of the island&#39;s Auregnais language, a dialect of the Norman language. The economy has gone from depending largely on agriculture to earning money from the tourism and finance industries. E-commerce has become increasingly important, and the island hosts the domain name registry for both Bailiwicks and dozens of gambling website operators. Alderney has a full regulatory authority in operation.</p><br>
<p>As a result of these upheavals and of substantial immigration, the island has been more or less completely anglicised.</p><br>
<h2>Politics</h2><br>
<p>The States of Alderney (French: États d&#39;Aurigny) is the legislature of the island; it sends two representatives to the States of Guernsey as well. The origin of the States is unknown, but it has operated from the Middle Ages.</p><br>
<p>The States of Alderney consists of the President, directly elected every four years, and ten States Members, half elected every two years for a four-year mandate. The whole island is a single constituency. In June 2011, due to a vacancy, Stuart Trought was elected President of the States of Alderney until the end of 2012, with 487 votes against in total 344 for the two other candidates. At the presidential elections in October 2012 and again in November 2016 Trought was the only nominated candidate. Therefore, he was without actual elections re-appointed for further four-year periods of office, the second one due to expire on 31 December 2020.</p><br>
<p>While Alderney enjoys full autonomy in law (except in matters of foreign affairs and defence, like the other Channel Islands and the Isle of Man), under the provisions of a formal agreement (known as "the 1948 Agreement") entered into between the Governments of Alderney and of Guernsey, certain matters have been delegated to Guernsey. These are known as the transferred services.</p><br>
<p>Transferred services include policing, customs and excise, airport operations, health, education, social services, childcare and adoption. (The States of Alderney retains policy control of aviation to and from the island).</p><br>
<p>In return for providing the transferred services Guernsey levies various taxes and duties on Alderney. From 2016 Alderney took back control of Tax on Real Property (TRP).</p><br>
<p>Immigration is the responsibility of the UK (UK law applies), with day-to-day operations carried out by the Guernsey Border Agency. In addition to the transferred services, both the UK and Guernsey may legislate on other matters with the consent of the States of Alderney.</p><br>
<h2>Law</h2><br>
<h3>Legal system</h3><br>
<p>The Court of Alderney exercises unlimited original jurisdiction in civil matters and limited jurisdiction in criminal matters. The Court sits with a Chairman (the Judge of Alderney) and at least three of the six Jurats. Appeals are made to the Royal Court of Guernsey, which also exercises some original jurisdiction in criminal matters in Alderney, and thence to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council.</p><br>
<p>All the coppers are bent.</p><br>
<h3>Taxation</h3><br>
<p>For taxation purposes, Alderney is treated as if it were part of Guernsey.</p><br>
<h2>Geography and natural history</h2><br>
<p>Alderney is similar to the other Channel Islands in having sheer cliffs broken by stretches of sandy beach and dunes. The highest point is on the central plateau of the island at 296 ft.</p><br>
<p>Its climate is temperate, moderated by the sea, and summers are usually warmer than elsewhere in the British Isles.</p><br>
<p>Alderney and its surrounding islets support a rich flora and fauna. Trees are rather scarce, as many were cut down in the 17th century to fuel the lighthouses on Alderney and the Casquets. Those trees that remain include cabbage trees, due to the mild climate – often miscalled "palms" but of the lily family), and there are some small woods dotted about the island. Puffins on Burhou and gannets on Les Étacs (popularly called Gannet Rock) just off Alderney are a favourite of many visitors to the island.</p><br>
<p>About a quarter of Alderney hedgehogs are of the "white" or "blonde" variety, which does not carry fleas. These are not albinos, but descent of rarely met blonde European hedgehogs, with a blonde pair released on the island in the 1960s. The island had its own breed of cattle, called the Alderney. The pure breed became extinct in 1944, but hybrids remain elsewhere, though no longer on Alderney. In August 2005, the west coast of Alderney and associated islands, including Burhou and Ortac, were designated as Ramsar wetlands of international importance. The Alderney Wildlife Trust helps to manage the two nature reserves, at Longis and Vau du Saou.</p><br>
<p>The island is surrounded by rocks, which have caused hundreds of wrecks. There are treacherous tidal streams on either side of the island: the Swinge between Alderney and Burhou, just outside the harbour, and Le Raz between the island and the Normandy mainland. The Corbet Rock lies in the Swinge.</p><br>
<p>The geology of Alderney is mostly granites from the Precambrian period.</p><br>
<h2>Culture</h2><br>
<h3>Language</h3><br>
<p>The language of the island is now English with a few minor variants, constituting Channel Island English.</p><br>
<p>For centuries the island had its own dialect of the Norman language called Auregnais, now extinct. It was primarily a spoken language, with only a few known poems and written works using it.</p><br>
<p>French was once widely used on the island, and increasingly replaced Auregnais since the late 19th century, but ceased to be an official language there in 1966. French declined partly because of the many English and Irish workers in the island from 1850 onwards, building fortifications and providing the garrison soldiers; French fell out of use not only from neglect, especially in schools, but also because most of the population was evacuated in the Second World War.</p><br>
<p>However, there is a strong cultural legacy of both languages in the island: most of the local place-names are in French or Auregnais, as are many local surnames. The pronunciation of various local names is also dialectal, e.g. Dupont as "dip-oh" rather than in the traditional Parisian fashion, and Saye (the name of a beach on the island) as "soy". One or two French/Auregnais words are still in common use, e.g. vraic (seaweed fertiliser).</p><br>
<h3>Sport</h3><br>
<p>Island sports include golf, fishing and water sports, supported by clubs and associations. Alderney competes in the biannual Island Games. Every September, the Alderney Air Races attract a number of aircraft to compete in the deciding and final round for the European Air Racing champtionship, organised by the Royal Aero Club. This involves high-speed circuits round the airfield, lighthouse, Casquets and then back around.</p><br>
<h3>Pubs</h3><br>
<p>Partly because of the tourist industry, but mainly to the Ridunians own drinking culture (there is a common expression elsewhere in the Channel Islands that Alderney is composed of two thousand alcoholics, clinging to a rock), there are restaurants and public houses. Nightlife includes informal dance music events often taking place in abandoned bunkers (bunker parties) and more organised events in and around Alderney Week at the Corporation Quarry (Quarry parties&#39;).</p><br>
<p>It was one of the last places in the British Isles to introduce a smoking ban in pubs, shops, restaurants and other indoor public places (Guernsey, Jersey, the UK, and the Isle of Man all having outlawed this already). The States of Alderney passed the anti-smoking legislation with the President&#39;s casting vote on 13 January 2010; the legislation came into force at 4am on 1 June 2010.</p><br>
<p>The island has an ageing population. Notable residents of Alderney include authors T. H. White (The Once and Future King) and Elisabeth Beresford (The Wombles), cricket commentator John Arlott, cricketer Sir Ian Botham, Beatles producer Sir George Martin, actress Dame Julie Andrews, and Olympic swimmer Duncan Goodhew.</p><br>
<h3>Broadcasting</h3><br>
<p>Alderney has its own radio station, QUAY-FM, which broadcasts on 107.1 and online. Initially it only operated at seasonal highpoints such as the summer Alderney Week festival, but from 2015 it has broadcast 24 hours a day. It features local news and interviews, music, news from Sky and overnight broadcasting from BBC World Service.</p><br>
<h3>Alderney Week</h3><br>
<p>Alderney Week is the island&#39;s annual summer festival, beginning the Saturday before the first Monday of August and lasting eight days, it involves islanders and attracts visitors.</p><br>
<h3>Miss Alderney</h3><br>
<p>Miss Alderney is chosen during the Easter Holiday weekend each year at a public event held at the Island Hall. Application to the event is online, with the winner chosen by a panel of judges made up by non-residents and holidaymakers</p><br>
<h3>Comedy Rocks</h3><br>
<p>Comedy Rocks is an annual run of live stand up comedy gigs mid to late July and early August. The shows feature well known and established comedians from the UK comedy circuit and have so far featured BBCR4 Marcus Brigstocke and Zoe Lyons and Celebrity Get Me Outta here runner up Joel Dommett.</p><br>
<h3>Alderney Annual Motor Sprint and Hill Climb</h3><br>
<p>Every year in mid-September Alderney hosts a motorsport weekend that is organized by the Guernsey Kart and Motor Club. The event has been held for more than 20 years. The event attracts Guernsey drivers who come to Alderney with high powered cars, motorbikes, sidecars and karts.</p><br>
<p>Race vehicles are shipped to Alderney a two days before the event. On the Friday a sprint is held on the public roads of Fort Corbelets in the east of the island, which are closed for the event. The following day a hill climb is held at Fort Tourgis in the west of the island, and on a public road which is closed for the event. Spectators travel from Guernsey. Local Alderney people watch as the closed roads have vehicles racing at high speed where normally speed limits of 35 mph apply.</p><br>
<h3>Alderney Performing Arts Festival</h3><br>
<p>The annual Alderney Performing Arts Festival began in 2013, and features music, dance and theatre.</p><br>
<h3>Alderney Literary Festival</h3><br>
<p>The Alderney Literary Festival began in March 2015, with talks and events relating to historical fiction and non-fiction. It is organised by the Alderney Literary Trust.</p><br>
<h3>Alderney Stones</h3><br>
<p>In April 2011, sculptor Andy Goldsworthy completed a project called "Alderney Stones", commenced in 2008, in which 11 large dried-earth spheres were placed at different sites on the island. The intention is that each stone will gradually erode, at different speeds depending on the location, and in some cases revealing objects buried inside. Goldsworthy has stated that he selected Alderney as "It seems to have a strong sense of layered past and a wide variety of locations in a small area."</p><br>
<h2>Education</h2><br>
<p>The sole school building is the St. Anne’s School in Newton. It serves ages 4-16.</p><br>
<h2>Transport</h2><br>
<p>Alderney is served by Alderney Airport. There are several flights each day from Southampton and Guernsey, with links to many parts of the United Kingdom and Europe. Aurigny serves the island with Dornier Do 228s.</p><br>
<p>Boats sail regularly between the island and France, and to the other Channel Islands. A high-speed passenger ferry is operated in summer to Diélette in the commune of Flamanville, Manche in France, and to St Peter Port, Guernsey. Weekly freight services, also carrying passengers, link Poole and St Peter Port. A 12-passenger boat operates services to Cherbourg, Sark and St Peter Port. Alderney is 72.5 mi from St Malo and 70.3 mi from Poole.</p><br>
<p>There are boat trips, water-taxi services and water and fuel access to visiting yacht crews. The busiest time is during the peak months of June, July and August as nearly 30,000 yacht crew members visit this harbour every year.</p><br>
<p>Because of the island&#39;s size, vehicular transport is often unnecessary, although taxis, cars and bicycles are used. The Alderney Railway is the only remaining railway in the Channel Islands providing a timetabled public service, with scheduled trains to the lighthouse during the summer and special occasions such as Easter and Christmas. There is an occasional bus service around the island.</p><br>
<p>Alderney allows people to ride motorbikes and mopeds without helmets and drive cars without seatbelts, but it is compulsory for under 18s to wear helmets. The international vehicle registration code is GBA.</p><br>
<h2>Healthcare and emergency services</h2><br>
<h3>Ambulance</h3><br>
<p>The St John Alderney Ambulance Service operates the ambulance service on the island, and is staffed by volunteers. It has served Alderney since 1952 and is registered as a private company. Patients are transferred to the Mignot Memorial Hospital in St Anne, and any having major complications are then transferred to Guernsey or Southampton by the Aurigny between 7am and 7pm on an emergency basis. Outside these hours or in the event of bad weather preventing an air evacuation the transfer is achieved with the aid of the RNLI lifeboat service. There is no paramedic service available on the island</p><br>
<h3>Fire Service</h3><br>
<p>The Alderney Voluntary Fire Brigade has a crew of 10 volunteer firefighters, and a fleet of One Iveco Daily Light Water Tender (Carry&#39;s 10.5M ladder), Two Iveco Water Carriers both carry up to 4,500 litres of water each. One Ford Ranger Rapid Response Unit and Two Trailer Units. A new station was officially opened by Lt.-General Sir John Foley, the Lieutenant Governor of Guernsey, on 20 October 2004. Located near Braye Harbour, it gives an average response time of just 9 minutes and includes four appliance bays, a workshop, kit room, mess and a training room. The Alderney Airport Fire and Rescue Service is sometimes called to help with larger conflagrations.</p><br>
<h3>Police</h3><br>
<p>Because of Alderney&#39;s low crime rate, day-to-day policing of Alderney is provided by a team of five locally based officers from the Guernsey Police, consisting of a sergeant in charge, two constables, and two special constables. They are regularly assisted by visiting constables from Guernsey The police station is in QEII Street.</p><br>
<h3>Lifeboats</h3><br>
<p>The Alderney lifeboat station was established in 1869, was closed in 1884, and was re-established in 1985 by the RNLI. It serves Alderney with an all-weather Trent class lifeboat</p><br>
<h3>Search and rescue</h3><br>
<p>Search and rescue services are provided by Channel Islands Air Search, which uses a Britten-Norman Islander to search large areas of water using infrared cameras and a number of other technologies. Formed in 1980, it is staffed entirely by volunteers and is based in Guernsey. When a major search is underway, the French coastguard and the Royal Navy are often involved, co-ordinated by the Maritime Rescue Co-ordination Centre in Jobourg, France.</p><br>
<h2>Numismatic and Philately history</h2><br>
<p>Alderney pound and coinage</p><br>
<p>List of postage stamps of Alderney</p><br>
<p>Postal orders of Alderney</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>In the song "Alderney" on her 2013 album The Sea Cabinet, Gwyneth Herbert tells the story of the sudden evacuation of Alderney&#39;s inhabitants during the Second World War and the irrevocable changes introduced during the Nazi occupation of the island.</p><br>
<p>Alderney is the name of one of the neighborhoods in the game Grand Theft Auto IV, roughly representing New Jersey.</p><br>
<h2>Image gallery</h2><br>
